www.reference.dmoz2007.org

Hebrew for "study" and accumulated oral traditions of theological strivings inside the Jewish community. Two versions exist, one compiled in Babylonia, and one in Palestine.
People. It rather involved that old Sumer came under the effective control of a single city, Babylon. Hammurabi first year of reign is generally considered as the beginning of Babylonia history, but its exact dating is uncertain. There are 3 chronological systems for the ancient Middle East, and according to these, Hammurabi first year is either 1848 BCE, 1792 BCE or 1728 BCE. The middle of these is used by most publications. Around 1900 BCE The Semitic tribe, the Amorites, conquers most of

City in Algeria with 40,000 inhabitants. Economical base is trade for central Sahara and some agricultural output.
Plant and fruit, belonging to the mulberry family, or Moraceae. Figs are indigenous to the area stretching from Anatolia onwards to India. Still the plant is grown in most countries in the Middle East and North Africa. It is a deciduous tree, from 1 to 12 metres high with deeply lobed leaves that are rough above and smooth beneath. The branches of the tree are covered with downy, greenish bark. The growth of the fruit comes from flowers that are borne inside a fleshy, hollow organ. As this organ

City in northern Morocco with an estimated 630,000 inhabitants. Economical base centers on shipping, communications, tourism and small scale industry. Includes history timeline.
Arabic world have different dialects, extra letters have been added. The sounds that are not covered by standard Arabic are p, g, v. These are written almost like the letter that comes closest in standard Arabic, but with an extra dot. The following Arabic letters does not have any correspondence in the Latin alphabet kh (equals German ch), gh (a softer version of kh), ayn (guttural stop, but clearly pronounced from the back of the throat), th (as in English), dh (softer version of th), sh (as

A wood-framed singleheaded drum covered with goatskin. Similar to the tambourine in shape and size, but without the metal disks.
Periods of Egyptian history, Pharaoh is described as an institution, not as an individual. The ideal Pharaoh was linked to peace and stability. Pharaohs that were successful in a military sense, deviated much from this..

City in Morocco with 30,000 inhabitants, situated in the Souss Valley. Economic base centers on handicrafts, trade of agriculture produce and light industries. Includes history timeline.
I just had to make a photo of this area the colours are almost shocking pink, a colour rarely used elsewhere in Taroudannt. The Arab market is the main area for touristic shopping, but it has a relaxed feeling compared to Marrakech. Taroundant is well known for the high standard of its handicrafts, and in most cases reasonable prices. While there is just as much need to be careful in your haggling here as anywhere else in Morocco, Taroudannt might still be the place to do most of your

Arabic term for Sufism, mystical orientation inside Sunni Islam. Aim is to gain a closer connection to God and higher knowledge.
Had been the head of Khadirite order during a longer stay Mecca and Sanusi may be seen as related to the Khadirite order. The Sanusi theology involved that every human being should pass through hierarchies of worlds. Members should aim at communication with Muhammad in their waking hours, praying to God to be united with Muhammad. Activities of the Sanusi did not involve rituals to create ecstasy through music and dancing like it was done with other Sufi orders. But exactly how their rituals

City in Morocco with 80,000 inhabitants. Economical base is agriculture and trade. Includes history timeline.
Is in danger. 1124 A small Berber state grows up around the village of Tin Mal in the High Atlas Mountains (centre of what is today Morocco), where Ibn Tumart has installed himself. 1130 Ibn Tumart dies, and is succeeded by Abdu l-Mu min. 1147 The Almohad leader Abdu l-Mu min conquers Marrakech, and brings an end to Almoravid rule. Now, the Almohads suddenly find themselves in control of northwestern Maghreb, but Spain is still outside their control. 1154 al-Mu min secures control over southern

Capital of Iran, officially with 7.5 million (1996 census), but with perhaps as much as 10 million inhabitants. Economical base centers on food-processing, textiles, cement, bricks, sugar, chinaware,
Castrated by fear of him becoming a future political rival. 1757 Becomes the effective ruler of the Azerbaijan province. 1758 Succeeds his fater as chief of the Qavanlu clan of the Qajars. 1762 Is captured and sent as a hostage to the court of the Zand ruler, Karim Khan. 1779 Upon Karim& ,s death, Mohammad escapes and takes back the position as the chief of the Qajar tribe, then starts using the power vacuum to establish his own territories. 1794 Mohammad Khan defeats the last Zand ruler, Lotf

City of Israel with about 380,000 inhabitants, including Jaffa, and situated on the Mediterranean Sea. Economical base centers on industries and services and features many cultural activities.
Consider such if his mother is Jewish. This is the case with Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, while Reform Judaism states that a child is Jewish if either one of the parents is a Jew. Anyone can convert into Judaism, and become a Jew. A converted Jew is considered equal to Jews by birth. One slight hinder is with the rabbinate of Israel which demands that the conversion has to be under the supervision of an Orthodox rabbi. This has caused problem for some groups of immigrants to Israel, but

Includes two temples, the first being erected in the 10th century BCE by King Solomon. The temple was rebuilt, starting in 20 BCE. Larger in construction, it was called the Temple of Herod.
Marry a second if the first did not give him children..The most important industry of Babylonia was agriculture, but other industries were fairly well developed too. Babylonia was involved in foreign trade, and exported manufactured goods, while the country had to import metal, wood and stone materials that the country lacked. Babylonian cities resemble to some extent the modern village in the Middle East. Most houses were only one-storey high, and built of mud bricks. They had no windows

City in Morocco with an estimated 320,000 inhabitants. Economical base features trading of agricultural products, including grain and vegetables, citrus fruit, livestock and crafts.
Its houses it may just feel like part of the medina. But there are clear differences, mellah houses are taller, more square and often they have dark painted iron balconies and window grilles. Heading in from the Place Hassan 2, you turn to the right right before the Bab er-Rouah. And today, how many are left? Virtuall nobody, the community was emptied in the second part of the 20th century..

Capital in ancient Egypt. Has some of the best preserved monuments of ancient Egypt, including include the Colossi of Memnon, the Ramesseum of Ramses II, the temple of Ramses III, and the temple of Q
Structure dominates. By this it resembles modern Semitic languages, like Arabic and Hebrew. Short structures may consist of as little as 2 consonants. In brief, this system involves that a specific combination of 3 consonants contain a special meaning. By changing vowels and adding specific consonants at places, nouns and verbs of related meanings could be constructed. And since vowels were not written, the reading of Egyptian script is complicated, and victim to misunderstandings. Two different

Apocryphal gospel of Christianity, that was found with the Nag Hammadi excavations in 1947-49. Written in Coptic language.
Development of eastern Orthodox Christianity. The empire would remain large for more than 700 years, until it was defeated by the Ottomans. 12th and 13th centuries The Christian Crusades in the lands around Jerusalem involve new contacts between Eastern Churches and the Catholic Church of Rome. In some areas (especially around modern Lebanon), Christian countries are established, while in other areas hostility between eastern Christians and the Crusaders results. 15th to 18th centuries A

Egyptian pharoah, reigning from 1525-1512, in the 18th dynasty.
The best ford for crossing the river. Carchemish was located to a fertile area along the river. The city was protected by thick double walls. A high citadel in the centre controlled the activities on the river. The present-day ruins are extensive but of limited interest, most movable artefacts have been relocated to museums. Access to the area is also restricted..8th millennium BCE The site of Carchemish is settled, this belonging to the Neolithic Period. Early 15th century Conquered by King

Egyptian pharoah, ruling from 1512 to 1503 BCE.
Was Kemet, Dark Land, referring to the dark and fertile soil along the Nile river. As with modern Egypt, the Nile was the single source of water for Ancient Egypt, allowing abundant harvests 3 times a year. With this, Egypt was one of the first regions in the world where agriculture became so productive that non-agricultural activities could begin developing towards a sophisticated and specialized level. This involved at first trade, with urban centres for trade and the production of necessary

Egyptian pharoah, reigning from 1504 to 1450 BCE. Includes brief biography.
2558-2532 BCE. Giza, Egypt..Old Kingdom Pyramid of King Khafre, of the 4th Dynasty, ca. 2558-2532 BCE. Giza, Egypt..Kalabsha represent the very last stage of Ancient Egyptian history. Built after the era& ,s end, in the middle of 1st century CE, it is built according to Egyptian patterns..Roman era The Kiosk of Qertassi at Kalabsha represent the very last stage of Ancient Egyptian history. Built after the era& ,s end, in the middle of 1st century CE, it is built according to Egyptian

Egyptian pharoah, reigning from 1424 to 1417 BCE, belonging to the 18th dynasty.
As in all ancient societies, agriculture was the main economic activity. The harvests in Egypt were richer than in most other countries at the time, allowing for a larger percentage of urban dwellers and diverse forms of production. Hence the cities, temples, the wealth of the state and the ability to equip armies for campaigns against countries producing products that Egypt had in short supply. The main crops of Ancient Egypt were wheat and barley, as well as lettuce, beans, onions, figs,

Town in Israel with 25,000 inhabitants, situated in the northern part of the country. Economical base centers around agriculture, fishing and tourism.
Consider such if his mother is Jewish. This is the case with Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, while Reform Judaism states that a child is Jewish if either one of the parents is a Jew. Anyone can convert into Judaism, and become a Jew. A converted Jew is considered equal to Jews by birth. One slight hinder is with the rabbinate of Israel which demands that the conversion has to be under the supervision of an Orthodox rabbi. This has caused problem for some groups of immigrants to Israel, but

River of Turkey, Syria and Iraq, with a length of 1,850 km. At Qurna, Tigris joins with the Euphrates.
Are 10 forms of verbs, there are a number of nouns which can be both feminine and masculine. As an example, s-l-m is the root of the words Islam, muslim, salam (peace), salama (safety), in addition to many others. Arabic grammar is fairly simple compared to Western languages, but the language has a richness in its used vocabulary that exceeds most languages in the Western world..Arabic writing is an alphabetic script, based upon distinct characters, adjoined to other characters, which in most

City in Morocco with 50,000 inhabitants, situated in the interior of the southern regions of the country. The economical base is production of high-quality silver jewelry, and trade. Includes brief
Many cases there are no official figures, there may never have been a proper census. There exists no consensus about how to define a border between neighbouring cities, nor to define city borders to a surrounding rural region. City populations are in some cases the population of a municipality, but municipalities can be smaller than the city proper, or they may include vast rural areas. LookLex definition of a city or town requires continued settlement, and defines the border between

City in Algeria with an estimated 180,000 inhabitants. Economical base centers on olives and wine, carpets, leather goods and textiles.
Group of languages, of the Afro-Asiatic linguistic family. Berber is spoken in 5 countries across North Africa Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, the speakers are collectively known as Berbers, although the different groups may have differing names for themselves. The differences between the languages can be considerable, due to geographical distances. There are about 15 dialects with 300 sub-dialects. The largest concentrated group of Berber speakers is found in Kabylia in Algeria,

Hebrew for "lore" or "instruction'". A collection of writings central in Judaism.
Is a special pact between God and the Jews. Jews are obliged to observe the Law given by God. The purpose of this pact is to bring the world forward to the point where Messiah arrives in the world, in order to recreate order and stability in the world, with Jerusalem and Israel as the centre. Judaism is often used for the whole tradition of the religion of the Jews. This is inaccurate, as there was a drastic shift in the religion in the early 1st millennium BCE, when true monotheism was

Capital of Libya with 1,050,000 inhabitants and a principal seaport.
Cathedral 10. Modern city.The castle of Tripoli, known as Assai al-Hamra, has been the fortress of many lords of this region through the centuries. It was briefly the stronghold of Christian knights in the 16th century, only to be expelled by Muslim pirates. It is assumed that the first fortress was built in the 7th century, to protect against the Muslim Arab invasion of Libya. At least until the 17th century, it appears that all sides of the fortress was surrounded by water. Much of the present

Underground dwellings dug out, and lived in, by man. Term has a Greek origin and means cave dweller.
Northern parts, virtually nothing in the east, although more in the south. Most rain falls throughout the summer, followed by some scarce winter rain. About a quarter of Sahara consists of mountains. The highest peak reaches 3415, being Emi Koussi in Chad. Some mountain peaks may even have snow in the winter. The main mountain ranges are Hoggar in Algeria, Ar Azbine in Niger, and Tibesti in Chad. The Sahara lowest point lies in the Qattara Depression in Egypt, at about 130 metres below sea

Nomadic berber people living in the parts of Sahara that covers Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso.
Strong and vibrant. In Egypt, Berber is spoken along the coastal zone west of Alexandria, and in the oasis of Siwa. Berber identity currently is linked to the language many of the North Africans calling themselves Arabs are more Berber in origin than Arab. In many areas (especially Tunisia), Berber identity is regarded as a negative, principally because many Berber societies are less developed than those in urban settings, where almost all inhabitants see themselves as Arabs. In Algeria, Berber

Capital of Tunisia with an estimated 1.3 million inhabitants. Export products are carpets, fruit, iron and olives.
First. 1963 The reconstruction of the Great Mosque is begun, following the original 10th century plans..

Features information about its status, government, geography, demography, economy, climate and major cities. Includes flag and map.
Trap of Islamism as seen in other Muslim states, this generation of Islamic politicians have come to dominate the present society..Most Turks belong to Sunni Islam, with a Shi& ,i minority in the east. As mentioned, Islam in Turkey is officially all about Sunnism, but realities are somewhat different. Sunni Islam is controlled and funded by the Presidency of Religious Affairs, which effectively runs and funds 75,000 mosques and their employees, who are considered civil servants. Religious

Description used for several important peoples in Central Asia. Estimated population of 100 million worldwide.
Found in the remains after the Achaemenid dynasty (550- 330 BCE). The oldest traces of Old Persian date to the 6th century BCE, but it was spoken until the 3rd century BCE. Old Persian was spoken in southwestern Iran, while Avestan was spoken in northeastern Iran. In addition to the two languages there must have been at least a third. Median is mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus. It is believed that there must have been a fair level of mutual intelligibility between the Iranian languages

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1361 to 1352, during the 18th dynasty. Includes details of discovery and contents of his tomb.
Geography and mathematics. The education was based upon copying, whether it was literature, letters or business accounts. Higher education was rare, and was generally transmitted through the process of work. While there were institutions like well-equipped libraries, Ancient Egypt had no form of universities. The sciences of Ancient Egypt were limited to practical needs, for example, the development of a calendar consisting of 365 days in a year. The calendar was aligned with the appearance of

City in Iran with 300,000 inhabitants. Situated in the south-western corner of Iran, on the island of Abadan.
Important economic activities along the Shatt al-Arab are shipping of oil from Iraq and Iran, and large-scale date production. The two major cities of the river are Abadan in Iran and Basra in Iraq..1639 Treaty of Zohab, between the Persian and the Ottoman Empires, where the rights of Shatt al-Arab were disputed. At this point Russia and Britain were involved in the conflict, Russia on Persian side and the British on Ottoman side. 1988 Peace between Iran and Iraq, without changes in the borders

Uncle of Muhammad. Successful merchant, and was known for the grandeur that he surrounded himself with during his travels. Stories tell that he was in charge of the Zamzam.
Ideas and customs that are clearly in correspondence with the original Islam, and those that must from a neutral point of view be consided deviations or ideas and customs that certain Muslim groups disagree over. Original ideas and customs are then labelled Islamic , those not are labelled Muslim ..minarets. Madina, Saudi Arabia. Photo Abdullah Y. Al-Dobais Saudi Aramco..City and oasis in Saudi Arabia with 870,000 inhabitants (2003 estimate), situated in Hijaz, in western Saudi Arabia, 160 km

Caliphate dynasty ruling from 750 until 1258. All of one big family that claimed to descend from Abbas, an uncle of Muhammad.
Christian Church and begins persecuting Christians. 851 Has the shrine of Husayn at Karbala destroyed and forbids pilgrimage to it. 853 Dhimmis are forbidden to ride on horses, they have to limit themselves to donkeys and mules. 861 December Is murdered by Turkish soldiers in Samarra, at the instigation of his oldest son, al-Mutansir..Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle

Moroccan politician and liberation fighter and leader.
World..Arabic writing is an alphabetic script, based upon distinct characters, adjoined to other characters, which in most cases change their looks depending on where they stand in the word. The Arabic alphabet developed from Nabatean characters, one of the West Aramaic languages of the ancient Middle East. Arabic writing is put together of 28 signs, where 3 have vowel qualities (a, i, u, but i is often used for the letter y, and u often for the letter w). Since some regions of the Arabic world

Emir, religious and military resistance fighter against the French occupation of Algeria.
Museums, and embassies..The economy of Damascus is based upon governmental administrative activities, processed food, clothing, and printed material. Damascus still holds traditional handicrafts up, such as high quality textiles, silk cloth, leather goods, filigreed gold, silver objects, inlaid wooden, copper, and brass articles. The Ghutah oasis produces fruits including olives and grapes, cereals and vegetables. Among the livestock are cows, goats and sheep..Damascus was from 661 to 750 the

King of Jordan. Was named crown prince less than 2 weeks before he was sworn in as regent of Jordan, following the declaration of the clinical death of his father, Hussein 1.
(1947-) Prince of Jordan, crown prince 1965-1999. Brother of former king Hussein 1 and uncle of King Abdullah. Hassan has through the years been one of his brother& ,s closest advisors. He has been active in the work of bringing different religions together for interfaith dialogue, and is educated in Oriental studies from Christ Church in Oxford..1947 March 20 Born in Amman as the son of crown prince Talal (later king) and Zeini sh-Sharaf bint Jamil. 1965 Hassan is named crown prince of Jordan,

First Caliph of Islam.
, Prophet Town . While services and maintenance with the pilgrimages to Madina employ a large number of the city inhabitants, other activities are still of much importance. Agriculture not longer relies on the traditional wells, but uses pumps. The main produce are dates, other fruits, vegetables and cereals. Dates of Madina are processed and packaged for export. Industries of Madina are small-scale, involving automobile repair, brick and tile making, carpentry and metal working. Madina has

Island, city, and emirate in the United Arab Emirates. The emirate has about 1.19 million inhabitanst, while the city has about 420,000.
All of the UAE. With declining oil prices, the petroleum sector contribution to GDP was as low as 29% in 1997. Then, manufacturing contribution has risen to 16%. Petroleum is exported through 2 main ports, the Jabal Dhanna and the Das Island. There are 3 more terminals, smaller in size, the Abu al-Bukhoosh, Mubarraz, and Delma Island. Income from massive foreign investments is a major source of income for Abu Dhabi. Around 2004, the value of the Abu Dhabi ownership was estimated at US0

Muslim theolgian, founder of the Ash'ari school of theology.
Prophet..Few things in the modern world have been caught in a sadder web than Islamic theology. Whereas Muslims agree upon the Koran, a huge collection of extra-Koranical texts have been given a divine quality and are used as equally imperative to Muslim regulations. In some cases extra-Koranical texts have taken presedence over Koranic texts. The consequence is a religion that has very, very little to do with the origins, largely being the cause of today& ,s shift towards intolerance, rigidity

Founder of the Islamic school of the muwahhiduns, also known as Wahhabism.
Theological techniques than his fellow Hanbali theologians, he came to add a number of clarifications and new definitions to this orientation. Among his methods, were reasoning by analogy, qiyas, but he rejected related methods like taqlid (imitation of a case law) and ijma (consensus). He claimed to adhere strictly to the content of only the Koran and the Hadiths, and rejected all bid a (inventions). The most known doctrine of his is the condemnation of the cult of Muslim saints and prophets,

Palestinian politician and guerilla leader.
Forces..1975 Settlement on frontiers between Iran and Iraq that involved increased territory for Iran compared to the borders prior to 1971. 1980 September 22 Iraq invades Iran, and has early victories. 1982 Iraq is driven out of Iran. 1982-87 The war enters a phase in which Iranian soldiers try to invade Iraq, while Iraqi aircraft bombs Iranian cities and oil installations. Both nations started attacking each other& ,s oil tankers on the Persian Gulf, in reciprocal retaliation. Few territorial

Mountain range in south-western Libya, and a subrange of the Hoggar Mountains of Algeria. Lies southwest of the Fezzan area of central Libya.
In its northern parts, and a tropical one in the south. Winters in the north are cold to cool, in the south, mild. Summers are hot all over the desert. The highest temperature every recorded is 58C in Aziziyah, Libya. There is very little rain in the northern parts, virtually nothing in the east, although more in the south. Most rain falls throughout the summer, followed by some scarce winter rain. About a quarter of Sahara consists of mountains. The highest peak reaches 3415, being Emi Koussi

City in Turkey with 1.1 million inhabitants. Situated inland, 30 km from the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea.
Subtropical, broad-leaved tree with a edible fruit from the family Oleaceae. It is generally the fruit which is just called olive . The family contains about 900 species. For the region of this encyclopaedia, the growing of olives are in the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. The only country off this region, Iraq, has an illustratively low yield of 11,000 metric tons a year, compared with neighbouring Syria 999,000. An olive tree takes 4 to 8 years to bear its first fruits, and doesn t

City of Yemen, and the country's winter capital, with 530,000 inhabitants, situated in the south of the country, at the Gulf of Aden.
Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas, becomes Prime Minister, while Ali Salim al-Baidh, also of the south, becomes Vice President. A 30-month transition period followed. 1994 May 21 Forces of South Yemen breaks out of the united state, forming the Democratic Republic of Yemen. July 7 Breakdown of the Democratic Republic of Yemen, and Yemen reunites..Western arm of the Arabian Sea, meeting the Red Sea at the strait Babu l-Mandeb. The gulf runs in a west-east direction, between Yemen and Somalia, meeting

Western arm of the Arabian Sea, meeting the Red Sea at the strait Babu l-Mandeb.
Sensationally ill-manged country, the poorest country on the Arabian peninsula, and scores miserably on all economic factors. The GDP per capita is only ,500, which is 76% below world average. Unemployment is at a staggering 35%, and almost half the population is below poverty line..Things are always connected, and Yemeni education system scores poorly at all levels. Still, serious efforts are put into the process of changing this..Yemen, here on the corner of the Arabian peninsula, has one of

Uttering used to call all Muslims to prayer, salat. Sent out from a minaret, either sung by a muezzin present in the minaret, or transmitted from a loudspeaker with the help of cassette recording.
World..Arabic writing is an alphabetic script, based upon distinct characters, adjoined to other characters, which in most cases change their looks depending on where they stand in the word. The Arabic alphabet developed from Nabatean characters, one of the West Aramaic languages of the ancient Middle East. Arabic writing is put together of 28 signs, where 3 have vowel qualities (a, i, u, but i is often used for the letter y, and u often for the letter w). Since some regions of the Arabic world

City in Morocco with 720,000 inhabitants. A seaport and the administrative and economical centre for its region.
Straight, houses low and minimalistic and which placed hotels between the city and the beach. Some people hate Agadir because there is very little that happens automatically here, while others find it all very attractive. One thing is definatly true for every year that pass, streets become more and more lively, and more and more Moroccan elements move in where minimalist white houses before have dominated..The figures given by LookLex are estimates, and heavily rounded off. Accurate population

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1570 to 1546, and founder of the 18th dynasty.
Important centres of the eastern Mediterranean basin. Many cultural elements were imported to Egypt, especially from Aegean territories. Among the more fascinating periods of the dynasty was the short-lived monotheistic cult of Akhenaten, which often has been suggested as the mother of later monotheistic religions like Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The end to the dynasty seem to have clear links to Akhenaten& ,s dramatic changes of the Egyptian society. Not only did he attempt to kill all

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 569 to 526 BCE, as part of the 26th dynasty.
From that of the Nile, being close to Libyans. Still, these lands were clearly part of the culture of Ancient Egypt..

The evil power in the Avesta, the collection of religious writings in Zoroastrianism.
Contemporary to Avestan, another Old Iranian language. Old Persian is preserved through cuneiform tablets found in the remains after the Achaemenid dynasty (550- 330 BCE). The oldest traces of Old Persian date to the 6th century BCE, but it was spoken until the 3rd century BCE. Old Persian was spoken in southwestern Iran, while Avestan was spoken in northeastern Iran. In addition to the two languages there must have been at least a third. Median is mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus. It

The supreme god in Zoroastrianism.
The few and the most worthy will enter. Few of the original religious systems seem to define heaven as anything by physical, corresponding to the celestial space. The sun, moon and stars are part of the realm of heaven, elements that represent light, contrasting darkness and evil..In a religious system the belief that there is only one god and that there are no other competing gods. Monotheistic faiths often come from centralized initiatives, demanding the total rejection a pluralism of gods.

City of Tunisia, and the centre of the mountainous region in the northwest of the country, with about 10,000 inhabitants.
And strong and emphasized versions of the letters t, d, s, z, h. One letter, called hamza, is not even pronounced, other than as a stop. In transcriptions it is marked with a only. Vowels are not letters, only signs added to the letter preceding them. In most cases the vowels are not written, so that the name Muhammad is written mhmd . The vowels are normally only indicated in special cases, like where there is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school

Algerian political group. A militant subdivision of FIS, and not be confused with the far more active and brutal GIA.
October Rebellion among the youth of Algiers, which soon spread to other cities like Oran, Mostagenem and Blida. 1989 February 18 FIS is founded in Algiers with Abbas Madani and Ali Belhadj as front figures. September FIS is officially legalized. Large demonstrations in favour of a society governed by Muslim law, Sharia, and for the arabization of the society. 1990 More demonstrations for the introduction of Sharia. June 12 FIS participates in local elections receiving 55% of the votes, taking

Egypt's largest newspaper, founded in 1875 by the Taqla family.
Peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic, and includes words for modern phenomenons as well as a rich addition from the many dialects spoken all over the Arabic world. Spoken Arabic is a mixed form, which has many variations, and often a dominating influence from local languages (from before the introduction of Arabic). Differences between the various variants of spoken Arabic can be

President of Syria (1971-2000).
Tawaf, was most certainly performed even if we do not know if there were 7 circumabulations or not. As for the other parts of umra, like the say, the accounts are more loose, but we know that the hill tops of Safa and Marwa were considered sacred. Early Muslim scholars were divided of the importance and necessity of the umra, but it became well established as a ritual with an importance similar to what it has today early in the history of Islam..Uttering of the niya, which is the statement where

City in Syria with 1.9 million inhabitants. Commercial and cultural centre of northern Syria.
Belonging to Islam are considered Muslim, even if they are not practicing Muslims. Research (Tore Kjeilen) in Tunisia in 1994 showed that about 40% of the population are practicing Muslims, while 50% participate only in major holidays. Slightly less than 10% are not active at all. Atheists exist in all Muslim countries, yet because they seldom exeed 1-3% of the population, they often designate themselves as Muslim, since they identify with Muslim culture and world view..Muslim is also used as an

City in northern Egypt with about 3.9 million inhabitants. A commercial and economic centre.
Return to office. 1997 A wave of attacks on Copts by militant Islamists..

Independent republic, divided into 48 provinces. Certain mountainous regions are under the control of Islamist rebels.
As a political liberator of Israel, while Christians understood Jesus to be a spiritual liberator of humankind in a far broader sense. But in both religions, Messiah represented an end of the unjust world. As the Christians saw it, Jesus main task was to prepare for the forthcoming apocalypse and the end of Satan influence in the world. One book in the New Testament tells about this, Revelation. It has many similarities with the apocalyptic books of the Old Testament, but also with some of the

One of the greatest thinkers in Islam, and among the foremost theologians.
Element of the title was well illustrated by the fact that it was the shadow caliph in Cairo that bestowed the title sultan on the fourth leader of the Ottomans (the earlier leaders had been beys). At later stages, even smaller rulers took the name sultan , as was the case for the earlier leaders of today& ,s royal family of Morocco. Today, of the monarchs of North Africa and the Middle East only the leader of Oman uses the title sultan , Qaboos ibn Said..

Capital of Algeria with 2.9 million inhabitants, and the largest and most important city of the country, in economical, cultural and scientific sense.
Carthaginian catapult stones - the largest the size of footballs. Carthage, Tunisia..Collective name on the wars between the Punic (the Romans used the name Poeni on the people of Carthage) city state of Carthage (now outside Tunis, Tunisia) and Rome, the first war starting in 264 BCE, and the last ending in 146. The wars were fought between the two strongest contenders for control over the central Mediterranean Sea of the time. For a long time during the second Punic war, it could seem that

4th Caliph, and the last Caliph that both Sunnis and Shi'is agree upon as justifiably elected, yet the Kharijis did not accept him from 658 and onwards.
Attend the hajj, and this number is now regulated, where each country can send a fixed number of adherents. The numbers of Muslims coming to Mecca for the umra, the lesser pilgrimage are far less, and not regulated..Known around 0 CE as Macoraba, and was an important trade and religious centre. 630 Comes under control of Muhammad, and purged it of all traces of non-Muslim religion. 1269 Comes under control of the Egyptian Mamluks. 1517 Passes to the Ottoman Empire. 1925 Comes under control of

The tenth Imam of the Twelver Shi'i Islam (833- 868).
Mosque is painted green. 1860 Profound reconstruction of the Prophet Mosque is completed. 1925 Madina surrenders to the control of King Ibn Sa ud. 1955 The Prophet Mosque is largely expanded. The new sections followed the old styles, but used concrete instead of local stone..1. Ali as Caliph 2. Husayn is killed, and Shi& ,i Islam is born 3. Successful rebellions 4. Final success in Persia 5. Theology 6. Who has the right belief?.*) Calculated for the total population of North Africa and the

Eighth Imam of the Twelver Shi'i Islam (799- 818).
The Muslim community. The Shi is of the period rejected the legitimacy of the Abbasid leadership. The change came towards the end of the 9th century, and started with the takeover by Sunni scholars of religious leadership, of the cost of the Caliph. This change became especially clear after the Mihna of mid-9th century. In political terms, the Abbasid Caliphs became puppets in the hands of the Turkish military troops, and in 935 the title Emiru l-Umara was transferred to the chief of the Turkish

The fourth Imam of Shi'i Islam (680- 712 or 713).
Which the last went into occultation around 941 CE and is expected back in the form of a Mahdi (a saviour character with many similarities to the Messiah in Judaism and Christianity). Along the line of the 12 imams, there were many disputes over who was the right one. Records show that there were more than 40 Shi i sects growing out of these disputes. The first group, the now extinct Saba iyya, thought that Ali had become divine, and went into occultation instead of dying. With all imams, save

Descendants of Ali, the fourth Caliph, and the first Imam (according to Shi'i Islam).
Sadiq. After this the Isma ilis consider Jafar son Ismail as the truthful imam. The various Isma ili traditions then recognize different lines of Imams which reach all the way up until modern time. The Twelvers continue with Musa al Kazim, Ali ar Rida, Muhammad at Taqi, Ali al Hadi, Hassan al Askari and Muhammad al Mahdi, their last Imam whom they believe went into occultation. Hence, the last imam never died. The Twelver Shi i are also sometimes referred to as Rafidi, Jafari, Mutawahi,

The Arabic word for "God", used in Islam and Christianity.
Letter, called hamza, is not even pronounced, other than as a stop. In transcriptions it is marked with a only. Vowels are not letters, only signs added to the letter preceding them. In most cases the vowels are not written, so that the name Muhammad is written mhmd . The vowels are normally only indicated in special cases, like where there is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in

Muslim saying, frequently used, in situations ranging from greeting to expression of strong sentiments. It is most correctly translated with "God is greater."
Children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in transcriptions they are marked with lines over or under the letter. Due to limited fonts on computers, this encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..

Arab poet, considered the greatest of the classical Arab poets.
The Bagh-e Eram or Eram garden. Shiraz, Iran. Photo dynamosquito..City in southwestern Iran with 1.1 million inhabitants (2005 estimate), around 200 km from the Persian Gulf, at an elevation of 1,486 metres above sea level in the Zagros Mountains. It is the capital of Fars province with 4.4 million inhabitants (2005 estimate) and an area of 121,825 km. The economic base for Shiraz is commerce of products from the surrounding region, where grapes, citrus fruits, cotton and rice is produced. Of

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1991 BCE to 1962 BCE, founder of the 12. dynasty, after overthrowing the rulers at Thebes.
Of the king. The actual designation for the king of Ancient Egypt was nesw-bit , combining two dimensions of the king. Nesw reflected his divine dimensions, or even the unchanging kingship. Bit reflected the individual who was the king. The 1st Dynasty king, Den, of the 30th century was the first to use nesw-bit. The Pharaoh was considered as the son of the god Osiris, as Horus, and therefore himself a divine being. This gave strength to the institution as he was the protector of maat, the

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1843- 1797 BCE, belonging to the 12th dynasty.
And the dynasty ended with the female ruler, Queen Sobekneferu, some 50-60 years later. The actual end of the dynasty may well have been linked to her not having heirs, rather than a forced change of rulers..

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1546 to 1525 BCE, son of the founder of the 18th dynasty, Ahmose 1.
Belonging to the middle class, it was customary for fathers to teach their sons. The main subjects in the schools were reading and writing, as well as political skills that were central in the administration. Other important subjects were geography and mathematics. The education was based upon copying, whether it was literature, letters or business accounts. Higher education was rare, and was generally transmitted through the process of work. While there were institutions like well-equipped

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1450 to 1424, as part of the 18th dynasty.
Products, like pottery and tools, and over time, more and more products for an easier and more pleasant living. With these urban centres, no more than villages at first, came the more evolved political leadership and more advanced religious activities. People of Ancient Egypt lived on the same lands that the modern Egyptian does, but there were in long periods no large cities, in some periods only very few cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants. There was one great difference deciding where

Egyptian Pharaoh reigning from 1417- 1379, being part of the 18th dynasty.
End of what we call Babylonia, but much of the culture and most of the cities survived for some additional centuries..King of ancient Egypt. The term pharaoh was originally used for the place where the king resided, and is to be translated with great house . Gradually the term came to be used for the king himself this probably happened somewhere between 1400-900 BCE. However, Pharaoh never become part of the official title of the king. The actual designation for the king of Ancient Egypt was

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1379 to 1362 BCE, as part of the 18th dynasty.
Lasted only 2 decades, after which it was restored as capital. With the attack of the Assyrians in 661, Thebes was sacked. In Ptolemaic times, it remained important, but it was destroyed by the Romans around 30 BCE, and lost its importance forever. Thebes has some of the best preserved monuments of Ancient Egypt, even if the old settlement is now covered by modern houses. At Karnak, the temple of Amen lies. This was constructed for the first time around 2000 BCE, but was built on for 2000 years.

Eternal divine beings in Zoroastrianism, entities that bring blessings and comfort.
Influenced by the dominant religion of the region, Islam..Zoroastrianism is to some extent a monotheistic religion, in the sense that there is a supreme god, Ahura Mazda, that is central in all cult. Yet, the existence of lesser divine beings dilute this image. Even the power that opposes Ahura Mazda, the evil Ahriman may be seen as a deity of Zoroastrianism, since he is an important force in cosmos. To the pantheon of Zoroastrianism (note that in the pantheon no power can compare to Ahura

Capital of Jordan with 1,2 million inhabitants.
Conflicting stories on what Muhammad had said. The tensions developed already with the first appointment of a leader, a person acting in the place of the Messenger, a khalifa ar-rasl, a few months after Muhammad death. Khalifa can be translated with successor, viceregent , but it is a term that is seldom used for anything other than the leader of the entire Muslim community. But when it is used, as with the honorary titling of good Muslims, it always refers to its standard meaning. Through

Timeline of events taking place in, and forming, the region of Southern Spain consisting of Andalucia Culture.
Confirmation, marriage and the Eucharist. It is sometimes also expected that that certain worship services have obligatory attendance. Important feasts among the Orthodox Christians are Easter (celebrated at other times than in western Christianity, starting in April or May), Christmas (December 25), Theophany (January 19), Great Lent (fast, starting in February or March). Confession, fasting, prayer, self denial, obedience, righteous deeds and visits to holy places are other rituals, and they

Capital of Turkey with 2.9 million inhabitants. Ankara is situated in the central of Turkey.

Mountain range of Lebanon and Syria. The length is approximately 150 km, and the highest mountain peaks at 2,814 metres.
Leader during the Crusades. Damascus. Syria..Greek Orthodox church. Ring the bell, and someone will open. Damascus. Syria..Ottoman governor of Damascus, Assad Pasha al-Azem. WIDTH= 109 HEIGHT= 73 BORDER= 1.Capital of Syria, with 1.95 million inhabitants (2002 estimate). Damascus is situated on a plateau 690 metres above sea level, bordered by the Anti-Lebanon Mountains to the west, and the desert to the east. Damascus lies in the Ghutah oasis, and is fed with water by the Barada river. It lies

Area made up of the Arabian Peninsula comprising the national states of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen.

Sea between the Arabian peninsula and the Indian subcontinent, that is part of the Indian Ocean.
Area made up of the Arabian Peninsula comprising the national states of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen. Arabia has a surface area of about 3 million km, and a population of about 35 million. Arabia is bordered by the Persian Gulf to the north, the Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, and the Gulf of Aden to the east, and the Red Sea to the west. Arabia has several regions defined by history and tradition, as well as geography. The largest are Hijaz and Najd which

Semitic language used by Arabs — where there is a direct connection, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood.
Unified language, Hebrew became the preferred language. Yiddish is still used to some extent in communities originating from Eastern Europe. English is widely used, but while a common everyday language in the early times of the state of Israel, it has no a role as foreign language. In general Israelis have a good conduct of English. In addition, Russian and English are languages spoken by many, and are often the preferred language in many contexts. As for the many other languages, these all in

People living in North Africa and the Middle East, from western Morocco, to Oman, and from Turkey in the north to Yemen and Sudan in the south.
Independent republic with 23.8 million inhabitants (2009 estimate), divided into 19 governorates (muhafaza(t)). The capital is San a, which is also the country largest city. Days of independence North Yemen (San a) November 1918, South Yemen (Aden) November 30, 1967. National holiday is the Unification Day, May 22, 1990. Head of state is President Ali Abdullah Saleh, Prime minister is Abdulqadir Bajammal. The government is made up of 29 ministers, where the Minister of Foreign Affairs also is

President of Palestine, through being president of the Palestinian Authority, which controls the Palestinian territories in Gaza and on the West Bank.
Defence minister, where he is responsible for the Israeli hard-line politics against the Palestinian intifada. 1990 With the collapse of the Likud-Labour government, Rabin resigns as defence minister. 1992 February Rabin becomes party leader in the Labour Party again, replacing Shimon Peres. June Rabin is elected prime minister for the second time. 1993 September 13 After secret negotiations in Oslo, Norway, a peace accord is settled with the PLO, and signed in Washington, USA. December 10

Theological school founded by Abu l-Hassani l-Ash'ari.
Not have eternal weight, but was created by God. Ascribing eternal weight to the words of the Koran would destroy the omniscience of God..Divine justice (adl). The issue here was facing the problem of evil in a world in which God is omnipotent. The Mu tazilis pointed to the free will of human beings, requiring them to understand evil as something stemming from errors of human choice. God does no evil, and he demands none from any human. If human evil had originated in the will of God, then human

City in Egypt, with around 380,000 inhabitants.
Muslims without taking into consideration that everything structurally wrong is forced upon Muslims by non-Muslims. A natural result of self-pity is hate. Hate towards all that and those that are responsible for the misery of the Muslim world. There is a hierarchy of hate subjects for the Islamists. First is the two-headed devil of the USA and the Zionists, which is responsible for a long line of misdeeds simply to keep the state of Israel alive. Second is international capitalism, which of

City in Egypt with 260,000 inhabitants. Capital of the Aswan Governorate.
Presentation of the religous truths to fit the educational level of believer. A higher level of batin involves philosophical and scientific efforts, in which the learned men aim at understanding and proving the divine origins of the institution of the imamate..For the Isma ilis, the number 7 has becomes a number of sacred proportions, as is also the case with the original Seveners. The quality of 7 is explained with it being the sum of the 4 directions (north, east, south, west), up, down and

Dam construction in southern Egypt, that exploits the water of the Nile.
And strong and emphasized versions of the letters t, d, s, z, h. One letter, called hamza, is not even pronounced, other than as a stop. In transcriptions it is marked with a only. Vowels are not letters, only signs added to the letter preceding them. In most cases the vowels are not written, so that the name Muhammad is written mhmd . The vowels are normally only indicated in special cases, like where there is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school

City in Saudi Arabia with 590,000 inhabitants. Slightly east of Mecca.
The Arabian peninsula is torn away from Africa, the Red Sea is formed. 1869 The Red Sea becomes a route for commercial shipping with the opening of the Suez Canal..(Mecca 570 or 571 AD- Madina 632) The founder of Islam, the receiver and transmitter of what Muslims believe is God message to humankind, as recorded in the Koran, the principal religious text for Muslims. Muhammad has no religious importance in Christianity and Judaism, and is considered not to be a prophet by adherents of these two

Founder of the modern republic of Turkey.
Turkish were the purifying of the vocabulary, which had become greatly influence by Arabic and Persian words. In 1932 an estimated 60-65% of the words in Turkish were of foreign origin, a number which had fallen to 20-25% in recent years..Modern studies indicate that Turkish language has a history dating back to the middle of the 4th millennium BCE. 8th century The oldest written documents of Turkish, found upon stone monuments in what in modern days is Mongolia. 11th century With the Seljuq

Mountainous area that fills most of the northwestern corner of Africa.
Ketama. The Rifs have no settlement much larger than extended villages, which often grow for marketing purposes. The only real towns lie at the foot of the mountains, Tetouan (320,000) and Chefchaouen (40,000) to the west and Al-Hoceima (60,000) to the north, on the Mediterranean Sea (all figures 2005 estimates)..

Muslim philosopher, physician, maliki jurist and ashari theologian.
Campaign from the Catholic Church towards Eastern Churches, encourages some to rejoin the Catholic Church. But they were allowed to keep their identity, organization, special rites, and a liturgy performed in their own traditional languages. None of the churches were forced to introduce celibacy for its clergy against its own will. 19th century Heavy and brutal actions from Muslims against Christians in the Ottoman Empire result in a great exodus of Christians from the region. Start of

The collections of scared texts in Zoroastrianism.
The believers in India, the largest Zoroastrian society of today. Modern Zoroastrianism counts about 150,000 believers in India, 60,000 in Iran, and perhaps 50,000 in the rest of the world..The cult of Zoroastrianism is focused on the battle against the evil, and the principal symbol of this is the sacred Fire. The most important place of worship is the Temple of Fire, which a fire burns as a symbol of the holiness of Ahura Mazda. The veneration of the spirits of the dead is also important in

Iranian Islamic philosopher and physician.
Children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in transcriptions they are marked with lines over or under the letter. Due to limited fonts on computers, this encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..

Verse in the Holy Koran.
In religions, the concept of a supernatural power that is considered worthy of reverence and respect. The nature of a god follows several patterns, and in some cases, not even a pattern. A god may be distant and inactive, or omnipresent, omnipotent and active. A god may be the only supernatural power in the universe, be in a constant battle with an anti-god, or be one out of several gods in a world of gods. A god may reside in heaven, act among humans, or reside in under ground. A god may be

Religious honorary title in Twelver Shi'i Islam in Iran.
In peace. No war has ever been fought over the issue of different schools, and students of religious subjects in most Muslim countries have to learn about all four schools. It is in many cases permissible to use a law from another school, if one feels that it is more appropriate. All schools have a lot in common, but there are many cases where the same act is regarded very differently. For the very same issue the schools can stretch from classifying things to be everything between forbidden and

Islamic term meaning the community of learned men. Designates people with religious education and related professions.
Large enough to make them incomprehensible to one another. Hence it could be correct to refer to the different versions as separate languages named according to their areas, like Moroccan, Cairo Arabic, North Syrian Arabic etc..Arabic also has a dimension of being a sacred language, as it is the only language from which the Koran is believed to be fully understood all translations will reduce the quality of the revelations of God. Arabic is based upon a very strict grammar, in which nearly all

Egyptian singer and musician. She recorded over 300 songs, worked with composers, recited classical poetry, and made a few musical films. Includes biography. (1904-1975).
Republic, with Nasser as the head. This was at this time considered as the first step towards Arab unity. 1959 Publishes the book, The Philosophy of the Revolution, which contains his principle ideas. 1961 The United Arab Republic breaks up, after a coup in Syria. Nasser kept the name although only Egypt was member of the united republic. 1966 November Signs a defense pact with Syria. 1967 May 30 Signs a defense pact with Jordan, too, which had been anti-Nasser for long. He precipitated the

Denotation for the community of Muslims, that is, the totality of all Muslims.
Children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in transcriptions they are marked with lines over or under the letter. Due to limited fonts on computers, this encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..

Caliph dynasty reigning from 661 to 750, located most of the time in Damascus, Syria. Most noted for the buildings they erected, such as the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem (690s
Principle of temporary marriage (Arabic muta, Persian sgheh), in which a marriage contract can be entered for a set time, for any period of time between 1 day and 99 years. The woman entering the mut a is paid a set amount of money. According to some Shi i traditions, a man performing 4 mut as is secured a place in Paradise. With the Iranian revolution, the system of mut a was reinstalled as a part of the total Muslim practice..While the Sunni consider the Shi is as innovators who introduce new

Provides information on the culture, history and society.
While not being the capital, but only across the Nile from it, many countries have established their foreign embassies here. Also, the government has put many of its offices in Giza. Giza has many luxury apartment buildings along the Nile, making it a popular place to live. Among learning institutions, the University of Cairo (moved here in 1924) and the Academy of the Arabic Language (established 1932) are the foremost..Cairo, with its 14 million inhabitants is one of the most fascinating

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