www.reference.dmoz2007.org

Explains the role and significance of persons with this title.
Consummated until she was 9. Abu Bakr with this strengthens his already close position with Muhammad. 622 Is one of Muslims that flees Mecca, Hijra,seeking refuge in Yathrib (later named Madina). He quickly emerges as one of the leaders of the Muslim emigrants. 632 Following the death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr becomes the leader of the Muslims, forming the position that would be called caliph. He ruled from his quarters in Madina. Many tribes that had sworn allegiance to Muhammad refuses to be

Details the characteristics of this animal.
Religions. Turks and Arabs are the largest population groups, Kurds third largest, and Jews the last of the larger. Of smaller peoples are Berbers (unless one use the widest interpretation of Middle East , which includes all of North Africa), Nubians and Armenians. The two dominating languages are Turkish and Arabic, with Kurdish as a strong number three. The fourth most important language is English, even if this only is used as first language by members of the expatriate communities. The fifth

Describes the history, commerce and people of this state.
This is an online travel guide for foreign visitors to Tunisia, allowing you to see all of the country from your own computer and perhaps plan your next holiday. For many, Tunisia is a country of great beaches and pleasant hotels. But it is also a country of great history, shown in its monuments, and a spectacular desert with beautiful villages. . more.

Describes the economy, society and architecture.
The city walls of Casablanca has a strange feeling to them in this large city, the walls are low and unimposing. A drastic change from many other cities of Morocco, where the city walls often dominate the image of the city..Contrary to most mosques in Morocco, this one does not say Non-Muslims no entry . However, in order to enter one has to join a rather expensive guided tour takes place 4 times a day, every day except Friday. It costs 100dh for adults, 50dh for students and 25dh for children.

Describes the society and history of this city.
Walking around the Monte Hacho, the fortress of Ceuta watches over you all the time. You rarely spot any soldiers, but at some few points you can hear them talking. The watch tower is a the eastern side, and strangely different from Morocco, nobody minds you talking as many photos as you like..

Explains the components and significance of this festival.
Moses got the covenant is also important, but not central in Jewish life. For many Jews, the synagogue in Jerba, Tunisia, is considered the oldest synagogue in Africa and hence sacred..

Provides information about this city.
Have different dialects, extra letters have been added. The sounds that are not covered by standard Arabic are p, g, v. These are written almost like the letter that comes closest in standard Arabic, but with an extra dot. The following Arabic letters does not have any correspondence in the Latin alphabet kh (equals German ch), gh (a softer version of kh), ayn (guttural stop, but clearly pronounced from the back of the throat), th (as in English), dh (softer version of th), sh (as in English)

Photographs and description of this salt lake.
Tozeur is the centre of an oasis of 20 small villages, 196 springs. The oasis is about 10 km large (1000 hectares). Tozeur has good connections with other urban centres of Tunisia by road and rail, as well as with Algeria (through El Oued) by road. Tozeur has a unique architecture, where yellow bricks are used as decorative elements of both old and modern houses. Parts of the old quarters date back to the 14th century. The bricks are laid in reliefs to form a variety of patterns. Tozeur has a

Describes the history and role of this religion, and includes details of component churches.
Arab Muslim invasion. 7th and 8th centuries The number of Christians in Egypt begins to decline, largely due to conversions to Islam. 9th century Muslims outnumber Christians in Egypt. But this attempt was not supported by Coptic leaders in Egypt, so none of the plans are realized. 1741 The bishop of Jerusalem Athanasius becomes a Catholic, and converts his bishopric of 2,000 adherents, into a Catholic one. Still his church would retain much of its character and independence. Athanasius would

Describes the life and achievements of the queen.
Named Ptolemy, but the most famous of the rulers was Cleopatra. The end of the Ptolemaic dynasty came after a period of weak rulers, but Cleopatra close relations with Rome would also prove critical..Pharaonic dynasty in ancient Egypt, lasting 305-30 BCE, 275 years. If including the time when Ptolemy 1 was governor, the period is 323-30 BCE, 293 years) when it was ended by Roman annexation. The founder of the dynasty was the Macedonian general Ptolemy, who became governor after the death of

Describes the history, society and culture of this city.
Centuries..Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle language in most countries covered by the Encyclopaedia of the Orient Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel (as one of the official languages), Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Arabic is used by around 250 million people, but is

Details the development and structure of this Christian group.
Understanding of Christ The Armenian Orthodox Church, the Coptic Church, the Syrian Orthodox Church, the Nestorian Church and the Ethopian Church. Dominating Christian groups, like the Roman Catholics and Protestants accept today of the teachings of the Monophysite churches..Around 430 Nestorius declares the first formulation that would come to define Monophysitism. Late 440 s Eutyches proposes another definition of Monophysitism. 451 The Council of Chalcedon, assembled by Pope Leo 1, aims at

Explains the development of this aspect of the religion.
Encourages some to rejoin the Catholic Church. But they were allowed to keep their identity, organization, special rites, and a liturgy performed in their own traditional languages. None of the churches were forced to introduce celibacy for its clergy against its own will. 19th century Heavy and brutal actions from Muslims against Christians in the Ottoman Empire result in a great exodus of Christians from the region. Start of colonization in Algeria, Tunisia and Mauritania brings large

Provides information about this section of the Egyptian population.
Became so grave that a reconciliation was no longer possible. From this time on, the supporters of Jesus formed their own fully independent religious groups and developed theologies and organizations independent of Judaism and Jewish leaders. Christianity is a religion based upon the belief that the Bible contains a divine message and that Jesus (who died between 25 and 40 CE) represents a new orientation in the relationship between man and God. There are differences on how the different

Describes this ingredient of North African cuisine.
Strong and vibrant. In Egypt, Berber is spoken along the coastal zone west of Alexandria, and in the oasis of Siwa. Berber identity currently is linked to the language many of the North Africans calling themselves Arabs are more Berber in origin than Arab. In many areas (especially Tunisia), Berber identity is regarded as a negative, principally because many Berber societies are less developed than those in urban settings, where almost all inhabitants see themselves as Arabs. In Algeria, Berber

Describes the history of this ancient kingdom.
From both parts of the country. Upper Egypt was in ancient times called Te-Shemau and divided into 22 nomes, regions, then including areas stretching all the way to Memphis. Lower Egypt was known as Ta-Mehu, which was divided into a varying number of nomes. Most commonly the number is set to 20. People of Upper and Lower Egypt understood each other, but spoke different dialects, their cultures were different and identities strongly linked to their home regions. The intermediary periods of Egypt,

Profiles the life and work of this Turkish politician.
Have political and social influence. But in general, Islamist groups see men as belonging more to life in society, while a woman primary obligation is towards the family. But seclusion of women is rarely professed by Islamists. Islamists are not democrats, even if there have been very successful attempts of making the Islamists part of a democratic structure (as in Jordan and for a breif period in Turkey). Yet, Islamist programs are not in favour of dictatorship (even if this has been the

Eleventh son of the founder of the Saudi kingdom, Ibn Saud. Proclaimed King at the year 1982.
One of Europe and USA favourites into becoming the most negatively presented dictator in the world. The change in this image was not related to any change in his political platform, nor to a greater suppression of his opposition, but to one act alone The invasion and occupation of Kuwait. Saddam Hussein brought to his homeland a system of economic security for all inhabitants of Iraq, relative freedom in the economic sector, a vital cultural life in the fields of theater, arts and music, freedom

Ruler of Saudi Arabia since 1964, until his death in 1975.
Conquests, but by annexing the different parts of Arabia which had up until then been seen as independent parts under the same ruler. 1933 May Loss in tax income because of fewer pilgrims to Mecca forces Ibn Sa ud to give the Standard Oil Company a concession to search for oil in Saudi Arabia, in return for a 50,000 advance on prospective oil revenues. 1936 Signs a number of treaties with neighbouring countries. 1945 Central in establishing the Arab League in Cairo. Early 1950s Private oil

Philosopher that worked for the Hamdanid emirs. Also 1introduced Plato and Aristotle to the Muslim philosophy.
Ones possessing knowledge . Ulama is a plural term, and the singular can be both alm (long i) and lim (long a), where both can be translated with learned, knowing man . lim is the most frequently used of the two. Normally ulama is used for the group of men with religious education and religiously related professions. Ulama is the group of men expressing the true content of Islam towards both the people and the rulers. Men belonging to ulama have education in the Koran, the Sunna and Sharia. The

Ruler of Egypt from 1936, until he was overthrown in 1952. Died in Rome in 1965.
And in the earliest literature from the Arabian peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic, and includes words for modern phenomenons as well as a rich addition from the many dialects spoken all over the Arabic world. Spoken Arabic is a mixed form, which has many variations, and often a dominating influence from local languages (from before the introduction of Arabic). Differences

Exile Palestinian group that was founded in 1957 by Yassir Arafat. Their direct military confrontation was with Israel, and became globally known in the 1960s.
Children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in transcriptions they are marked with lines over or under the letter. Due to limited fonts on computers, this encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..Organization that has worked as the official representative for the Palestinian people, and is now the

Opening chapter in the Koran, that expresses feelings about love, fidelity, births, marriages and burials.
Koran, suras have indications of the dominating time period of the content, whether it is revealed during the time in Madina or during the time in Mecca. Suras have very much the same chronological structure.

Daughter of the messenger of Islam, Muhammad, and Khadija, and married to Ali, and mother of Hassan and Husayn. She is the ancestral mother of the Imams of the Shi'i Muslims.
Longer the Muslim capital. It would instead be ruled by an emir, who would develop much independence from Damascus. 683 The Caliph of Damascus sacks Madina. 1207 Volcanic eruption creating a large lava field to the east of the town. 1256 The Prophet Mosque is destroyed in fire, but is rebuilt. 1481 The Prophet Mosque is again destroyed in fire, but is rebuilt. 1517 With the Ottoman takeover of Egypt, Madina passes to their control. 16th century The interior of the mosque is decorated with

Legal statement in Islam, issued by a mufti or a religious lawyer, on a specific issue.
Large enough to make them incomprehensible to one another. Hence it could be correct to refer to the different versions as separate languages named according to their areas, like Moroccan, Cairo Arabic, North Syrian Arabic etc..Arabic also has a dimension of being a sacred language, as it is the only language from which the Koran is believed to be fully understood all translations will reduce the quality of the revelations of God. Arabic is based upon a very strict grammar, in which nearly all

City in Morocco, situated in the interior of northern region.
Accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..Isma ili Shi i Islamic dynasty of caliphs, ruling over large parts of the Muslim world from the early 10th century until the late 12th century. The Fatimids claimed to be descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, and wife of Ali, the fourth caliph and first Shi i imam. The Fatimid leader defined himself not only as caliph leader of the Muslim world, but

Saharan region in Libya, covering altogether 700,000 km². It is met by the coastal zone in the north, the desert in the east, the Tibesti massif of Chad to the south.
And Urdu..Arabic is a language divided into 3 separate groups Classical written Arabic, written Modern Standard Arabic, and spoken Arabic. Classical written Arabic is principally defined as the Arabic used in the Koran and in the earliest literature from the Arabian peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic, and includes words for modern phenomenons as well as a rich addition from the

Lasted from 1947 to 1949, and the parties fought over the control over Palestine.
Settlement in the region. Around 0 Information about the Nabateans introducing terraced farming in the Negev. 1943 Kibbutzes are established in the Negev, reintroducing agriculture. 1950 s Pipelines are constructed to bring water from Northern Israel to the Negev. From this, effective farming has been realized. 1949 Eilat is founded, becoming the southernmost settlement of Israel and Negev, and the country port to the Asian seas. 1955 Dimona is founded. 1962 The town of Arad is founded..

Political party, illegal since 1992. Central in the militant opposition to the regime of Algeria.
Principles adopted in 1990 by the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), defined in a charter of 25 articles. The charter is declared to the be to guidance of the members states of the OIC. The charter was signed by foreign ministers of 45 countries, including (countries covered by this encyclopaedia) Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine as PLO, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and

The only legal party of the country from 1962 to 1989.
Letters t, d, s, z, h. One letter, called hamza, is not even pronounced, other than as a stop. In transcriptions it is marked with a only. Vowels are not letters, only signs added to the letter preceding them. In most cases the vowels are not written, so that the name Muhammad is written mhmd . The vowels are normally only indicated in special cases, like where there is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school children. There are also long vowels, and these

Conservative group inside Christianity which seeks to preserve the core of the religion and its impact on society.
Christianity, and sometimes moved to inhospitable places, like the desert, yet who still managed to survive..In most of the churches in North Africa and the Middle East, many rituals are performed by the clergy for the benefit of all members of the congregation. In many cases, it is expected that a membership attend the churches and cathedrals to participate in these rituals, but there are also some central everyday rituals that are performed for the benefit of members who are not present. The

Collections of sayings and acts of Muhammad and the first Muslims.
With way of acting , which largely corresponds with the meaning of biography , the other term it can be translated into. Sira represents the basis for the hadith, but without validatinh the stories recorded, by a chain of transmitters, isnad, as is the case with the hadiths. The reason why siras would come without this sort of validation may be explained that they didn t serve as important a role as the hadiths, which were used in the development of Muslim Law. Still, many of the earliest sira

Pilgrimage in Islam, to Mecca, that is compulsory to Muslims of good health and with sufficient funds to make the journey to Mecca.
Transformed into Christianity through Jesus. It would be correct to say that Abraham gives legitimacy to the traditions of Christianity, but there are no celebrations of any sort in his remembrance. Theologically, there are many details in the Abraham story that are have no substantial development in Christianity, like his being married to a half-sister Sarah (Sarai), Lot having children with his own daughters, etc. But Abraham& ,s total obedience to one god is an element that lives on as the

Islamic title for a person that have performed the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Etc..Arabic also has a dimension of being a sacred language, as it is the only language from which the Koran is believed to be fully understood all translations will reduce the quality of the revelations of God. Arabic is based upon a very strict grammar, in which nearly all nouns and verbs are built from a stem of 3 consonants. From these 3 consonants, a large range of words are derived there are 10 forms of verbs, there are a number of nouns which can be both feminine and masculine. As an

Egyptian dramatist and novelist.
And expressions. Arabic writing is also used for other languages like Persian and Urdu..Arabic is a language divided into 3 separate groups Classical written Arabic, written Modern Standard Arabic, and spoken Arabic. Classical written Arabic is principally defined as the Arabic used in the Koran and in the earliest literature from the Arabian peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic,

Arabic word for sweets in general.
Languages (from before the introduction of Arabic). Differences between the various variants of spoken Arabic can be large enough to make them incomprehensible to one another. Hence it could be correct to refer to the different versions as separate languages named according to their areas, like Moroccan, Cairo Arabic, North Syrian Arabic etc..Arabic also has a dimension of being a sacred language, as it is the only language from which the Koran is believed to be fully understood all translations

Palestinian Islamist political group, especially active with military actions.
League of Nations through which they could rule the world. They were behind World War II, through which they made huge financial gains by trading in armaments, and paved the way for the establishment of their state. It was they who instigated the replacement of the League of Nations with the United Nations and the Security Council to enable them to rule the world through them. There is no war going on anywhere, without having their finger in it. So often as they shall kindle a fire for war,

Carthaginian general.
Son of Hamilcar, and Hasdrubal, Hamilcar son-in-law, conquered parts of Spain. But then the Romans themselves crossed the Ebro river, heading south on a conquest train, Hannibal decided to face them. This was at Saguntum (Sagunto, north of modern Valencia) in 219. It was the same multiplicity of reasons as in 264, that made Rome declare war in 218. Then Hannibal did the totally unexpected he set off in northern direction and brought with him large troops including elephants. He crossed the Alps

Arabic public baths which are continuations of Roman and Turkish traditions.
In the Muslim world, as a large exporter of words and expressions. Arabic writing is also used for other languages like Persian and Urdu..Arabic is a language divided into 3 separate groups Classical written Arabic, written Modern Standard Arabic, and spoken Arabic. Classical written Arabic is principally defined as the Arabic used in the Koran and in the earliest literature from the Arabian peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a

Sudanese performing musician of Islamic Nubian and Arabic Music.
Last Nubian kingdom in 1900. A major part of the Nubian population were totally arabized or claimed to be arabs (Jaa& ,leen-the majority of Northern Sudanese- and some Donglawes in Sudan, Kenuz and Koreskos in Egypt). However all Nubians were converted to Islam, and Arabic language became their main media of communication in addition to their indigenous old Nubian language. The unique characteristic of Nubian is shown in their culture (dress, dances, traditions and music) as well as their

Carthaginian general, leader of the famous march across the Alps.
Hasdrubal, Hannibal did not get the aid he needed, and his forces grew gradually weaker, while the Roman forces grew stronger day by day..(c. 270-221 BCE) Carthaginian general. Hasdrubal was the son-in-law of Hamilcar, and the brother-in-law of Hannibal, functioning as the commander in chief in Spain from 228 to 221. His territorial advances came mainly through diplomacy, and he founded a new capital, New Carthage (Cartagena, Spain). Hasdrubal was killed in a quarrel..In the power battle of the

A plant (the twigs are being used) that is used in Zoroastrianism to reach intoxication.
Monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, but there has never been proven any clear examples of influence between the belief systems. Zoroastrianism is also called Zarathustrism, Mazdaism and Parsism. Parsism is the term used today among the believers in India, the largest Zoroastrian society of today. Modern Zoroastrianism counts about 150,000 believers in India, 60,000 in Iran, and perhaps 50,000 in the rest of the world..The cult of Zoroastrianism is focused on the battle

Sauce making up the most important ingredient in Tunisian cuisine.
Peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic, and includes words for modern phenomenons as well as a rich addition from the many dialects spoken all over the Arabic world. Spoken Arabic is a mixed form, which has many variations, and often a dominating influence from local languages (from before the introduction of Arabic). Differences between the various variants of spoken Arabic can be

Carthaginian general.
Carthaginians. Their religion had Baal and Tanit as central gods, but there were also elements from Greek religion, specifically, the goddesses, Demeter and Persephone. Carthaginian religious ritual invovled human sacrifice..814 BCE According to one story, the year when Carthage was founded by Phoenician traders from Tyre in today Lebanon. Legends tell that it was founded by Queen Dido, who fled her homeland. The exactness of the year 814 might be legendary as well. 7th century With the

Carthaginian general.
Italian coast, and drove the Romans away from Marsala on the western tip of Sicily. After putting down a rebellion among Carthaginian mercenaries in 238, Hamilcar gained strong personal power. Hamilcar began the conquest of Spain in 237, and he planned an attack on Rome with this as his base. Preparing for this attack for the remainder of his life, he paved the ground for the campaign that his son, Hannibal, carried out 10 years after Hamilcar& ,s death. Hamilcar himself would drown while

Second Imam of Shi'i Islam; eldest son of Ali.
Position in the town, the need for rules for a society was the more important. The ordering of the elements of the revelation as it is collected in the Koran, is not chronological to their disclosure to Muhammad, and elements from early times are often arranged together with later elements. How the revelations came to Muhammad is described in the hadiths Bukhari, Volume 1, Book 1.As told by Aisha (the mother of the faithful believers) Al-Harith bin Hisham asked God Apostle O God Apostle! How is

The eleventh Imam of the Twelver Shi'i (868- 873).
The mosque is 240 times 160 metres, i.e. more than 38,000 m. The walls are about 10 metres high, 2.65 metres thick and supported by 44 towers. An ambitious restoration process began in the late 1990 s, aiming at rebuilding the columns and eventually the roof. The spiral minaret, Malwiya in Arabic, is a separate structure from the main congregation hall, 27 metres north of the main hall. It is 52 metres high, and 33 metres in diameter. It is easily entered by a staircase spiralling up on the

King of Morocco from February 26, 1961 until his death on July 23, 1999.
And dunes represent about 25% of the Sahara, the other parts are mountains, stoney steppes and oases. Pyramidal dunes can be as high as 150 metres, while mountainous sand ridges as high as 350 metres. There are several rivers running through the Sahara, of which the Nile River and Niger River are the only permanent ones. The rest being seasonal, involves that most of the time, there is only a dry river bed, which may carry water for brief periods following uncommon rainfalls. There may be years

Prince of Jordan, crown prince 1965- 1999. Brother of former king Hussein 1 and uncle of King Abdullah.
Dissolved. 1965 Hussein appoints his brother, Hassan, as crown prince. 1967 June Hussein joins Syria and Egypt in their defence pact, and participates in the Six-Day War on the Arab side. The war results in Jordan loosing the West Bank to Israel. 1970 September Civil war between Palestinian troops and the Jordanian army, resulting in the victory of the latter. 1971 The Palestinian forces are expelled from Jordan. 1973 October Hussein does not participate in the Arab war against Israel, partly

Egyptian queen, the only female Pharaoh, reigning from 1503 to 1482 BCE, belonging to the 18th dynasty.
Words. Coptic script used an alphabet, with signs for vowels..

The temporary body that governed Algeria from January 12, 1992 till the end of 1993.
Throughout the country. From first on, FIS was headed by a teacher in high school, Ali Belhadj and a professor in psychology, Abassi Madani and an oil engineer, Abdelkader Hachani. The organization of FIS was controlled by a council, Majlis as-Shura, with between 30 and 40 members. The Majlis ash-Shura consisted of two main groups, labelled Salafis and the Jaza irs. The Salafis wanted to create a society after the regulations of the Sharia, while the Jaza irs were slightly more pragmatic, wanted

City in Palestine with about 110,000 inhabitants.
Festivals. During these services, the rabbi reads a section from the Torah and prayers are chanted from the Siddur (prayer book). Over one year, the congregation will have read through the entire Torah..The main feast for many Jews is the Sabbath celebrated from Friday afternoon until Saturday afternoon, every week. The different Jewish groups have the same core celebration, but they differ much in the level of complexity and strictness. For some Jews, no secular activity is allowed, while

A cosmetic paste that is solely used for decoration.
Indicated in special cases, like where there is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in transcriptions they are marked with lines over or under the letter. Due to limited fonts on computers, this encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as

Region and province in western Saudi Arabia.
Have different dialects, extra letters have been added. The sounds that are not covered by standard Arabic are p, g, v. These are written almost like the letter that comes closest in standard Arabic, but with an extra dot. The following Arabic letters does not have any correspondence in the Latin alphabet kh (equals German ch), gh (a softer version of kh), ayn (guttural stop, but clearly pronounced from the back of the throat), th (as in English), dh (softer version of th), sh (as in English)

Lebanese Shi'i Muslim political group, often involved in military actions.
Some orientations are classified as part of Islam even if beliefs and practices differ fundamentally. Reasons for such wrong classifications can be poor scholarship, or linked to historical events (see Taqiyya religions)..

Mountainous plateau region in southern Algeria and the Sahara Desert.
Peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic, and includes words for modern phenomenons as well as a rich addition from the many dialects spoken all over the Arabic world. Spoken Arabic is a mixed form, which has many variations, and often a dominating influence from local languages (from before the introduction of Arabic). Differences between the various variants of spoken Arabic can be

Strait separating the Persian Gulf to the west and the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea to the east.
Word)..Also written Aimak, this is a Persian dialect mainly found in Afghanistan, estimated in 1993 to 480,000 there and in Iran, 170,000. The poeple speaking Aimaq are also called in Aimaq, and are of mixed Iranian and Mongolian origins. In Iran they live in Mazanderan province, and are Muslims of the Sunni branch..Language spoken by an estimated 2.2 million (2000), 80% living in Afghanistan. In Iran, there are 283,000 (1993). A large part of the Iranian Hazaragi speakers are refugees from

The central symbolic religious figure of Shi'i Islam; third Imam; second son of Ali.
There can only be one imam at a time. Due to his close relationship to God, he is the only one who fully understands all aspects of Islam, the infallible and only one who can give interpretations of the Koran and the hadiths. Hence, he is the only one who can rule Muslim society on a day to day basis. Moreover, among many Shi is there is an idea that there are two types of imams The true and the false. The false imams are the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, while the true imams are the ones in the

President and prime minister of Iraq (1979- 2003).
Had very little following and had no real, formal organization. As for the theology, Sunni Islam represents no more of a continuation of Islam than the other orientations. Hence one should be careful about thinking of Sunni Islam as mainstream Islam, and clearly refrain from calling it orthodox . None of the 3 orientations of Islam coming out of the schisms of the 7th century, can do no less than trace their origins back to the very first Muslim societies, and for the bystander none of the

King of Jordan (1953- 1999).
Islamists out of politics, was lifted in 1991. Both parties are now strongly represented in the parliament. Another kind of politics, the politics of power, was implemented earlier, and Jordan has many times been on the fringes of civil war. This was in particular connected to the activities of the PLO. In recent years the popular support of the Islamists has weakened, and in elections in 1995 they lost a large percentage of their seats in the parliament..

Ruling dynasty in ancient Egypt, of foreign origin.
Egyptian military technique, with the introduction of horses and chariots. The revolt against the Hyksos emerged in Thebes, under the leadership of Kamose during a time of stability in Egypt. The Hyksos did not only lose their position, the people were largely expelled from Egypt, having to return to the heartland of Palestine. * Hyksos& , king, Apepi 1, was first challenged by King Tao 2, but he managed to defend his kingdom. Kamose, the succeeding Theban king, attacked both Apopis and Nubia.

Arab traveller and author. (1304- ?)
Muslim. A Muslim is a person who is intentional in trying to lead his her life according to God will, while the mu min (believer) is one who chooses the easier path, and lets his her needs dictate action. Most Muslims use the term true Muslim for the really devout, which means that all people belonging to Islam are considered Muslim, even if they are not practicing Muslims. Research (Tore Kjeilen) in Tunisia in 1994 showed that about 40% of the population are practicing Muslims, while 50%

Islamic historian and sociologist. (1332-1406)
Named their fortified settlement Babylon. 640 Arabs take control of the area under the leadership of Amr ibn al-As. He took control of Babylon, and exercised power over the Christian and Jewish city of Fustat nearby. 969 Cairo is established by the Fatimids after their conquest of Egypt. The city is placed about 2 km north of the city of Fustat..

King of Hijaz and Najd, and afterwards king of Saudi Arabia. Founded the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (1879- 1953)
Mountain, 2910 metres. The land of Hijaz is dominated by arid plateaus, sandy to stony deserts with fertile oases. Hijaz is known for known for its darker, more volcanic sand. Only briefly has Hijaz formed political unities, it has been part of larger empires, the caliphate, Egypt, the Ottoman Empire..Capital of Saudi Arabia, with 4 million inhabitants (2003 estimate), situated in the very interior of the country, 300 km from the Persian Gulf, and 900 km from the Red Sea. Originally Riyadh was

Arab philosopher and physician. (1100-1185)
Of income. This results in serous decline for the city economy. 1522 Saadians take control over Marrakech. The place is now a poor place largely in ruins, but with the Saadian arrival it is turned into the new capital of southern Morocco. End of 16th century Marrakech is restored to former glory, and becomes the culturally and economically leading city of Morocco. By the turn of the century, Marrakech has about 60,000 inhabitants. 1669 Marrakech is captured by the sultan of the Alaouites, and

Muslim reformer of Morocco. Was called Mahdi of the Almohads.
Mountainous area that fills most of the northwestern corner of Africa. The Atlas is divided into 5 regions, and stretch from Morocco, through northern Algeria, until it touches Tunisia. The northernmost area of Morocco belongs to the Rif Mountains, which is not a part of the Atlas. Morocco has the Middle Atlas, High Atlas and Anti Atlas. The High Atlas is the highest, with Toubkal Mountain stretching to 4,165 metres. Anti Atlas does not reach higher than 2531 metres at the most, but still has

Central religious feast in Islam, also known as cîdu s-saghîr and in Turkey as kücük-bairam.
Wrong, those present in this month, shall fast. God wants to make this easy for you, not difficult, so that you can make full the number of days..Sawm was established in 624 CE (2 H), from which year the above passage is taken. Until then no fasting seems to have been practiced neither by the first Muslims, or among the pagans of Mecca, except the Jewish inspired Ashura, which had been established only two years earlier. Sawm is one of the pillars of Islam, and practiced by a majority of the

Central religious feast in Islam, lasting for a period of three days, celebrated on the 10. Dhu l-hijja.
Umra, with the Ka& ,ba in the midst. Mecca, Saudi Arabia..City in Saudi Arabia with 1.4 million inhabitants (2003 estimate). Mecca is located about 80 km from the Red Sea Coast, around a natural well. Mecca is the most holy city in Islam. The city is revered from being the first place created on earth, as well as the place where Ibrahim together with his son Isma il, built the Ka ba. The Ka ba, the centre of Islam, is a rectangular building made of bricks. Around the Ka ba is the great mosque,

1: State of sacredness in which a Muslim performs hajj and umra. 2: Garment worn by hajjiyys during hajj and umra.
Arrival to Yathrib). Muhammad is believed to have been invited to Yathrib, as a hakim, a judge, and here he could establish the first Muslim community, and Muhammad served as the head of the leaders of the other communities of Yathrib. Soon after, Yathrib started to be called madinatu r-rasl, the city of the messenger , or in short Madina..Many of the inhabitants of Yathrib converted to Islam, but among the large Jewish community that lived here, only few converted. A large part of the converts

Uprising in the Palestinian occupied territories from 1987 to 1993, in protest against the Israeli occupation and politics.
Southern Lebanon by the Lebanese army that is backed by Syria. 1993 January Israel ban on personal contacts with PLO is lifted. With this accord much of PLO authority was restored, yet it was strongly opposed by several Palestinian groups. 1994 May Israel withdraws from most of the Gaza Strip and Jericho, and the Palestinian state under the temporary name of Palestinian National Authority is a reality. 1996 January 20 Elections in Palestine among non-Israeli residents, for a national council and

Independent Islamic republic, divided into 28 provinces. Heads of state: Leader of the Islamic Revolution (Wali Faqih) Ayatollah Ali Hoseini-Khamenei and President Mohammed Khatami.
*) Official figures 5%, foreign estimates as high as 20%. LookLex sets it in the middle of the extremes..For some letters, two transcriptions are provided. One is the correct one (bold), the other is the closest we get with standard computer letters. Letters unique to Persian, compared to Arabic, are written with light background..Indo-European Iranian language (Southwestern), spoken by an estimated 63 million (some estimates go as high as 85 million), principally in Iran, Afghanistan,

War between Iran and Iraq, lasting from 1980 to 1988, caused by disagreements on the borderline between the two countries.
Political structures, language and identity are replacing what there once was. Islamists reject many elements of the modern culture (but accept a lot), elements they feel are superfluous and dangerous. In many countries, the growth of Islamism must moreover be seen in connection with an inferiority complex towards the rich West, which is not only felt by Islamists, but many Muslims..All Muslims are all well aware that they were the superior military and cultural force in the world for centuries,

Independent republic, divided into 18 governorates. Under the control of a US-led force since April 2003.
Is Najdi. Gulf Arabic is spoken close to the border to Kuwait. The presence of Egyptian Arabic is mainly a result of modern-day immigration to Iraq. Due to the conflicts over recent decades, the number of Egyptian speakers my be much lower than the estimates given here..Kurdish in Iraq are mainly divided between Central and Northern dialects. Northern is spoken in the regions around the Great Zab river, and the provinces of Dahuk and Mosul. Central is spoken south of the Great Zab river, in the

City in Palestine with about 25,000 inhabitants, situated on the West Bank, in the Jordan Valley.
(see Karaism). Some of the most heated discussions have come in modern ages, where some orientations have wanted to adjust to the society, while others have claimed that the regulations of Judaism remain unchanged..The largest community of Jews live in the USA with 5,7 million. Many live in Eastern Europe and Western Europe, and there are between 200,000 and 300,000 on the African continent. The largest communities in the area of this encyclopaedia are in Israel and Palestine (these live under

(Jesus) In Christianity, a central religious person, either seen as God in human body or as son of God born by a woman. In Islam and Baha'i, one of the central prophets, as well as miracle worker (alw
Systems the difference between heaven and Paradise is minimal or confusing. In some systems, heaven is understood as the most perfect part of Paradise, where only the few and the most worthy will enter. Few of the original religious systems seem to define heaven as anything by physical, corresponding to the celestial space. The sun, moon and stars are part of the realm of heaven, elements that represent light, contrasting darkness and evil..In Christianity, the twelve closest followers of Jesus

A religion with more than 1,400 million believers. It is dominant in East- and North Africa, Middle East, Central Asia and in Indonesia.
Umra, with the Ka& ,ba in the midst. Mecca, Saudi Arabia..City in Saudi Arabia with 1.4 million inhabitants (2003 estimate). Mecca is located about 80 km from the Red Sea Coast, around a natural well. Mecca is the most holy city in Islam. The city is revered from being the first place created on earth, as well as the place where Ibrahim together with his son Isma il, built the Ka ba. The Ka ba, the centre of Islam, is a rectangular building made of bricks. Around the Ka ba is the great mosque,

Group of ideologies in Islam that want to use the Sharia to its full extent.
Acts, the reward is the highest a Muslim can hope for, becoming a martyr in Paradise. In the 1970 the Takfir wa-l-Hijra chose another form of protesting against what they consider infidelity, then especially in Egyptian society. Shukri Mustafa was much inspired by the ideals of hippies and socialists around the world in the same period of time. He called for a total break from the Muslim society, motivating his followers to form isolated, alternative communities, he even promoted living in caves

Independent republic, but not recognized by a most countries in the Middle East. Divided into 6 districts.
Prime minister election..Geographical area without clear borders, with its centre in the eastern Mediterranean basin. The most limited version of what the Middle East includes is set to Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan. An equally often used version of Middle East, includes Cyprus, Turkey, Iraq, and Egypt. An even larger Middle East includes Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen. In some cases, the Middle East is extended to include

Largest city in Turkey with 8,0 million inhabitants, situated on both sides of the Bosporus.
Was not comparable to that of a prostitute s. Another meaning of harem rarely used in Western languages, but important in Arabic was to denote an area where uninvited or unworthy had no access. Hence, Mecca and the surrounding area is a harem a religious harem. Into this harem, only Muslims are allowed to enter. While the harem was firmly established as an institution in the society and in individual families, it spread with Islam to areas beyond the Middle East and into North Africa..The

City in Turkey with 2.1 million inhabitants, situated in the west of Turkey.
Domestic airport with connections with Istanbul. Bursa has, in reality, a sea port on the Sea of Marmara, the small town of Mudanya, 25 km northwest, which has sea connections with Istanbul. Bursa is characterized by ravines cutting the city into three regions, which are connected by bridges. Bursa is a city of great early Ottoman architecture, winding streets, orchards and mountain streams. The Great Mosque from 1421 is a huge structure with 20 domes and adorned with superb calligraphic

Egyptian doctor, author and feminist.
World..Arabic writing is an alphabetic script, based upon distinct characters, adjoined to other characters, which in most cases change their looks depending on where they stand in the word. The Arabic alphabet developed from Nabatean characters, one of the West Aramaic languages of the ancient Middle East. Arabic writing is put together of 28 signs, where 3 have vowel qualities (a, i, u, but i is often used for the letter y, and u often for the letter w). Since some regions of the Arabic world

Jewish weekly holy day of rest, starting on Friday afternoon, lasting until Saturday afternoon.
Influences Hebrew with rules of syntax and with additions to the vocabulary. Last century BCE The Hebrew alphabet, as we know it today, is believed to be developed. 200 CE Development of what is now called Mishnahic Hebrew, or rabbinic Hebrew the language used in the Mishnah. In the following years, the guttural sounds of Hebrew are simplified, and there is a strong influx of words from Greek, Latin, and Persian. 9th century The use of Hebrew is in decline, resulting in it not being used

President of Egypt from 1970 to 1981.
And strong and emphasized versions of the letters t, d, s, z, h. One letter, called hamza, is not even pronounced, other than as a stop. In transcriptions it is marked with a only. Vowels are not letters, only signs added to the letter preceding them. In most cases the vowels are not written, so that the name Muhammad is written mhmd . The vowels are normally only indicated in special cases, like where there is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school

The world's largest desert, covering large parts of North Africa.
Moroccan cities are among the things I enjoy most doing when I visit the country. The artificial and sparse light helps new contours and colours to stand out, while they might be turned almost invisible from the strong sun light during day time..

People in western Sahara with a population between 500,000 and 1 million.
To the climate, allowing them to germinate within 3 days of rain and sow their seeds within 2 weeks after that. Animal life of Sahara include gerbil, jerboa, cape hare and desert hedgehog, barbary sheep, oryx, gazelle, deer, wild ass, baboon, hyena, jackal, sand fox, weasel and mongoose. The bird life counts more than 300 species..5 million years ago Climatic changes turn the region of Sahara into a desert. Around 5000 BCE Climatic changes, with more rainfall over the Saharan region.

American-Palestinian professor, social and literature scientist.
The only language from which the Koran is believed to be fully understood all translations will reduce the quality of the revelations of God. Arabic is based upon a very strict grammar, in which nearly all nouns and verbs are built from a stem of 3 consonants. From these 3 consonants, a large range of words are derived there are 10 forms of verbs, there are a number of nouns which can be both feminine and masculine. As an example, s-l-m is the root of the words Islam, muslim, salam (peace),

First Ayyubid sultan, and famous for having recaptured Jerusalem from the Crusaders.
Had captured parts the city. 1149 Invades the military district of Antioch. 1154 Takes over Damascus, hardly with any bloodshed. 1174 May 15 Dies from illness in Damascus..

Ritual prayer or divine service in Islam.
Large enough to make them incomprehensible to one another. Hence it could be correct to refer to the different versions as separate languages named according to their areas, like Moroccan, Cairo Arabic, North Syrian Arabic etc..Arabic also has a dimension of being a sacred language, as it is the only language from which the Koran is believed to be fully understood all translations will reduce the quality of the revelations of God. Arabic is based upon a very strict grammar, in which nearly all

City in Morocco with 400,000 inhabitants.
By up to four times more among Muslims around the world. Arabic is also central to other languages in the Muslim world, as a large exporter of words and expressions. Arabic writing is also used for other languages like Persian and Urdu..Arabic is a language divided into 3 separate groups Classical written Arabic, written Modern Standard Arabic, and spoken Arabic. Classical written Arabic is principally defined as the Arabic used in the Koran and in the earliest literature from the Arabian

Religious group, representing their own religion. Between 550 and 600 adherents.
Jesus plays a small role in Islamic theology, except from belonging to a line of prophets, from which Muhammad is still the most recent. But Jesus promises that there would come a messenger that would confirm the Law, a man called Ahmad (61,6)..Jesus is with the Mandeans presented as a lying prophet. The Mandeans have John the Baptist as an important religious figure, and the history of religion suggests John the Baptist could have represented an alternative religious orientation to Jesus. While

Capital of Yemen with 1.65 million inhabitants.

Funerary area in Egypt, 40 km south of Cairo and Giza.
Ceremony 3 times..1. Zoser step pyramid 2. Entrance and Hall 3. Mortuary temple 4. Meet Zoser 5. Heb-Sed Court 6. House of South 7. Pyramid of Unas 8. Causeway, boat pits 9. Valley Temple 10. Tomb of Horemheb 11. Saite Persian tombs 12. Sekhemkhet pyramid 13. Teti pyramid 14. Entering the tomb 15. Mastabas 16. Mereruka 17. Ti 18. Kagemni 19. Akhti-Hotep and Ptah-Hotep 20. Pyramid of Userkaf 21. 1. 3.Dynasty Tombs 22. Philsopher Circle 23. Serapeum.The Serdab is easily missed without a guide, or

King of Saudi Arabia (1953-64).
Are a number of nouns which can be both feminine and masculine. As an example, s-l-m is the root of the words Islam, muslim, salam (peace), salama (safety), in addition to many others. Arabic grammar is fairly simple compared to Western languages, but the language has a richness in its used vocabulary that exceeds most languages in the Western world..Arabic writing is an alphabetic script, based upon distinct characters, adjoined to other characters, which in most cases change their looks

Country in the Middle East, located south of Iraq, and north of Yemen.
Islam is not only the religion of Saudi Arabia, the country is also the place where the religion was founded, and remains the geographical focal point of all Muslims, with the two most holy places in Islam, Mecca and Madina. Saudi Arabian law defines the country as Muslim, and also requires all citizens to be Muslim. Officially Muslims constitute 100% of the population, but considering the the considerable expatriate community, 90% is a better estimate. Even among citizens, there are

Fast in Islam, lasting one month, during the whole of the month of Ramadan.
Establishment of the state of Israel, large percentages have emigrated. Today, only Morocco, Iran and Turkey have communities of some size. In Kurdistan, Judaism developed its own traditions. The origins here go back to Assyrian times, when Jews were deported by King Shalmaneser 3. The local Jews had many Kurds converted to Judaism. Local Jewish women enjoyed much freedom, and in the 17th century among the Kurdish Jews, the first femal rabbi emerged..There is a rich tradition for texts in

Larva that strikes hard on the population in countries like Egypt and Sudan.

City of Libya with 15,000 inhabitants.
Actions in which Gadhafi was accused of having been instrumental. Since 2003, with these matters resolved and an open politics on weapons of mass destruction and their dismantling, a new era for Gadhafi seems to have begun. From his recent politics, he seems to aim at being a bridge between the West and the Muslim world and other non-Western powers..Notable in his politics has been the support for liberation movements throughout the world, but in most cases involving Muslim groups. In the 1970

Language group that includes the languages Arabic, Hebrew in the Middle East region.
Lebanese, Beqaa, Sunni Beiruti, Saida Sunni, Iqlim al-Kharrub Sunni, and Jdaideh Arabic. All sub-dialects are easily understood. Armenian is the language of Armenians, who came to Lebanon especially in the beginning of the 20th century. Hence, this part of information about languages in Lebanon should be judged with care. After the French period of the French mandate in the 20th century, there are still people using French as their first language, but this group is dominated by older people.

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1962- 1928 BCE, being the 2nd of the 12th dynasty.
After the era& ,s end, in the middle of 1st century CE, it is built according to Egyptian patterns..Ancient Egypt is defined as the succession of kingdoms located in the northern part of the Nile, within the boundaries of modern Egypt, lasting from about 3100 BCE until 30 BCE, althogether more than 3,000 years. While the kingdoms at times were ruled by kings of foreign origin, the culture and religion of Ancient Egypt represent mainly continuations and developments from the same beginnings. The

Egyptian Pharaoh, reigning from 1878 to 1843 BCE, being the 5th ruler of the 12th dynasty.
Which we hear of a king to redeem Egypt fom chaos and despair, Amenemhet 1. Still, it may well be that the end of the 11th Dynasty was more a question of weak central power, but nothing like a civil war. This dynasty made Memphis capital on the cost of Thebes. Even a specific residence town for the king was etablished, Itj-towy, which has never been located, but it may have been 10-30 km south of Memphis. Some evidence suggest that the royal residence was moved north, into the Nile Delta. Kings

Latest searches: