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Egyptian Pharaoh, ruling from 1314 to 1304 BCE, during the 19th dynasty.
Countries was limited. This was true because the kingdom so often found itself in a state of war. Hence, if the Hittites needed special natural resources, conquest provided the solution, not foreign trade..The Hittite governance was totally dominated by the king, who was also the supreme priest, military commander and chief judge. Still the king was defined as first among equals , suggesting that the Hittite society was less authoritarian than many others of its time. During the Old Kingdom

City in Tunisia with 340,000 inhabitants.
Reach full production before 15 to 20 years. Trees are usually planted in flat fields without competitive vegetation, and commonly 20 metres apart. The olive tree blooms in late spring, bearing small white flowers. There are two types of flowers. Either with male and female parts in one flower, or as just a male flower. Pollination is through wind. Fruits for oil are usually harvested when they are well-matured. Olives for eating are either harvested before being mature or just when they become

The creed of Islam, and one of the religion's five pillars.
Peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic, and includes words for modern phenomenons as well as a rich addition from the many dialects spoken all over the Arabic world. Spoken Arabic is a mixed form, which has many variations, and often a dominating influence from local languages (from before the introduction of Arabic). Differences between the various variants of spoken Arabic can be

The law system inspired by the Koran, the Sunna, older Arabic law systems.
Seems likely that it was with al-Ghazzali that it really acquired its impact. The loss of ijtihad has been a central reason for the intellectual conservatism and stagnation in Muslim societies up until the modern age. Some modern, liberal Muslims have agreed on the need for the return of ijtihad. Most notable among these may be Muhammad Abduh, the founder of Salafism. In Twelver Shi ism, ijtihad is traditionally not allowed, although the 20th century Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini promoted a

Egyptian film actor with world-wide success.
Just across the bridges from Giza and Gezira. The most popular places to live are on Gezira, the less densely populated Giza, the southern centre of Maadi and the northern centre of Heliopolis. The area has been populated for at least 6,000 years, and has even served as the capital of Ancient Egypt. Today Cairo covers almost 300 km. Industrial areas prevent further growth of the city in many directions..Cairo has the world& ,s first university, al-Azhar, founded in 970, which serves as the most

Touristic town in Egypt with 4,000 inhabitants.
Sea between Africa and the Arabian peninsula, bordering Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. The length is 2,250 km, and the maximum width is 355 km. The maximum depth is 2,130 metres. To the north, the Red Sea connects to the Suez Gulf to the west of Sinai, and to the Gulf of Aqaba to the east. To the south, the Red Sea is connected to the Gulf of Aden, which is part of the Arabian Sea. The Red Sea is part of the Rift Valley, that cuts through most of eastern Africa. Its ports are

Israeli prime minister, military officer and politician, former defence and building minister.
International support has weakened, due to brutal colonization of Palestinian territory. Israel has a large freedom of press, and with more than 25 newspapers the country has an open debate of central questions. Newspapers are issued in Hebrew (11), Arabic (4) and English, French, German, Hungarian, Romanian, Russian and Yiddish, all with 1 newspaper each. The largest newspapers are Yedioth Aharonoth with a circulation of about 300,000, M ariv with about 200,000, Ha aretz with about 70,000 and

River in Iran and Iraq, of about 170 km length.
Defined as a war between good and evil..The allies of Kuwait included personnel from 32 countries, but the preponderant numbers were from the USA, Britain, France, Egypt and Syria. Saudi Arabia was contributing with more funds than personnel, as it feared that Iraq could threaten its territory. On the allied side, 700,000 soldiers participated, of which 540,000 were U.S. troops. There has never been an official report on numbers of Iraqi troops, but it is estimated that around 500,000 were

Jewish festival, that takes place on 6. Sivan, 7 weeks after Pesach.
Governed by strict rules Situated in the direction of Jerusalem, there is an ark containing the Torah. In front of this ark burns a candle. A table or a small pulpit is used for reciting from the Torah. And a 7-branched candelabrum is a central ornament in the synagogue. In most synagogues, men and women sit apart, but this is not custom in synagogues used by Reformists and Conservatives..Semitic language used in Israel, principally by Jews, counting in total 4.15 million or 56% of the

The largest non-Sunni branch of Islam, the Shi`i.
Ahl-e Haqq djem, a simple form of local gathering. Here sacred texts are read and music played. These gatherings are also defined to be the time and place where issues can be dealt with and disputes settled. These gatherings are of great importance to the Ahl-e Haqq, both for the individual and for the group..This is the main ritual event of the year for the Ahl-e Haqq, an obligatory winter fast lasting for 3 days. Its exact dates differs between the khandans. The fast is only through day time,

City in southwestern Iran with 1,050,000 inhabitants.
Large part of the Iranian Hazaragi speakers are refugees from Afghanistan. They are of the Hazara people, with a mixed Mongolian and Iranian ancestry. Hazaragi is sometimes classified as a seperate language..The figures given by LookLex are estimates, and heavily rounded off. Accurate population figures presented by many other sources are deceptive and suggest a level of accuracy that does not exist. With few exceptions, urban population figures are no more than advanced guesswork. Different

City in Algeria with 250,000 inhabitants.
Belonging to Islam are considered Muslim, even if they are not practicing Muslims. Research (Tore Kjeilen) in Tunisia in 1994 showed that about 40% of the population are practicing Muslims, while 50% participate only in major holidays. Slightly less than 10% are not active at all. Atheists exist in all Muslim countries, yet because they seldom exeed 1-3% of the population, they often designate themselves as Muslim, since they identify with Muslim culture and world view..Muslim is also used as an

Town in Morocco with 15,000 inhabitants.
Unguarded, yet there are dangerous undercurrents. Ask locals, if there is no form of guard around, whether a swim is safe or not..

Peninsula in Egypt, with an area of 61,000 square km and a population of about 60,000.
Mukalla of Yemen. Suez, located at the Gulf of Suez, is equally as important as these two, for traffic in the Red Sea. Port Sudan, Sudan has today only minor importance beyond the domestic needs of Sudan..20 million years ago As the Arabian peninsula is torn away from Africa, the Red Sea is formed. 1869 The Red Sea becomes a route for commercial shipping with the opening of the Suez Canal..

Oasis in western Egypt with 15,000 inhabitants.
Ones had ceremonial chambers, while the smaller ones had ceremonies performed outside the grave. The mountain holds a couple of truly great graves, full of wall-paintings equally beautiful to the noble tombs of Luxor or Aswan. Unfortunately, there are strict rules on photographing here, so the finest of the lot was out of reach of me and my camera..This is the tomb with the second nicest wall-paintings. It has one more attraction , two mummies in the original place..

War fought in 1967 between Israel on one side and Egypt, Jordan and Syria on the other.
Has a university established in 1962..There are remains of settlement here going back to perhaps as early as 4000 BCE. 13th century BCE The site is the effectively the capital of the kingdom of Ammon, the town being called Rabbath Ammon. 332 The region is conquered by Alexander the Great. Around 270? The town is rebuilt by the Egyptian king Ptolemy 2 Philadelphus, who renamed it after himself, Philadelphia. 218 Conquered by the Seleucids, beginning a period of turmoil. 164 The region passes to

City in Tunisia with 250,000 inhabitants.
Styles of the rulers of Sousse back then..

Country located in the Middle East, on the southern border of Egypt.
Like the Qadiriyah, Tijaniyah, Al-Fasi, Khatmiyah and Mahdiyah. The two latter have even been central in the formation of political parties in Sudan. These brotherhoods emerge in Sudan first in the 16th century and were often linked to Sufism. Qadiriyah was a brotherhood founded in the 12th century Baghdad. Tijaniyah was founded in Morocco in late 18th century, arriving in Sudan in early 19th century. Al-Fasi was also founded in Morocco, around 1800. Khatmiyah was founded in Sudan in the early

City in Egypt with 500,000 inhabitants.
Dead. 1994 A stampede kills 400 people. 1997 April 15 Fire kills 340 people. 2004 February 1 Stampede kills 244 people. 2006 January 13 More than 345 pilgrims die in a stampede near the Jamrat Complex in Mina..

Artificial waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to Gulf of Suez.
Sea between Africa and the Arabian peninsula, bordering Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. The length is 2,250 km, and the maximum width is 355 km. The maximum depth is 2,130 metres. To the north, the Red Sea connects to the Suez Gulf to the west of Sinai, and to the Gulf of Aqaba to the east. To the south, the Red Sea is connected to the Gulf of Aden, which is part of the Arabian Sea. The Red Sea is part of the Rift Valley, that cuts through most of eastern Africa. Its ports are

Gulf that is an arm of the Red Sea, touching Egypt.
Known as Qulzum, becomes an important port for pilgrims going on pilgrimage to Mecca. 16th century Suez is made into a Turkish naval station. 1859 Construction of the Suez Canal begins, which results in economic progress for Suez. 1967 The Six-Day War flattens Suez. 1973 New destruction on Suez with the Yom Kippur War. 1975 With the reopening of the Suez Canal, restructuring of Suez starts, most of it with prefabricated houses..

War fought between Egypt on one side, and Israel, Britain and France on the other.
Of the war. 1975 June 5 The canal reopens. Vessels carrying non-military goods to and from Israel are allowed to pass through the canal..

Jewish festival, where living in huts made out of boughs gives the festival its name.
13. The aim of this fast is concentration on the congregation relation to God. Central during this day are five sermons, with confessions and prayers for forgiveness from God..The central house of religious activities in Jewish religion, and is the most important religious institution along with the temple of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 70 CE. Today the synagogue functions as a substitute for the temple of Jerusalem. The synagogue is a symbol of the incompleteness of the Jewish religions,

Main group in Islam, making up 90% of the religion's adherents.
Crime punishable by prison. Most Baha is live in Teheran, but there are also some pure Baha i villages in the Fars and Mazandaran provinces. Most Baha is are Persians, there are also Azerbaijani and Kurdish Baha is..There are today only 35,000 to 60,000 Zoroastrians left in Iran. They are largely Persians, and form communities in Teheran, Kerman and Yazd. The low number of remaining Zoroastrians is a consequence of centuries of suppression from the Muslims, ranging form forced conversions,

Arabic name for market in a city or village.
Considered neutral, and are used by Muslims of all creeds..Many mosques of the first centuries, were originally churches. When churches were converted into mosques, this was naturally against the will of the Christians, but this wasn t always a big problem. In many regions, Christianity had lost its position, so the churches were simply turned into mosques over time. Muslims could actually use the churches since they were religious buildings and since Christianity was considered as a kin

Chapter of the Holy Koran.
This died out, and since then there have been very few attempts to interpret the bismillah as a trinity equal to the one in Christianity. The short form of bismillah is used as a part of daily language, normally as a way of underlining sincerity and honesty..Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle language in most countries covered by the Encyclopaedia of the Orient Algeria,

The central house of religious activities in Jewish religion.
As intense at times, but the new orientations which have differed most never grew into strong movements (see Karaism). Some of the most heated discussions have come in modern ages, where some orientations have wanted to adjust to the society, while others have claimed that the regulations of Judaism remain unchanged..The largest community of Jews live in the USA with 5,7 million. Many live in Eastern Europe and Western Europe, and there are between 200,000 and 300,000 on the African continent.

Country located in the Middle East, south of Turkey and north of Jordan.
Added. There are two main forms of Armenian, both with independent traditions, Eastern and Western. Eastern Armenian is the variant used in the independent state of Armenia. Western Armenian has been influenced by Turkish and Arabic in its phonetic structures. In the MENA, Eastern Armenian is only spoken in Iran, in the rest of MENA, Western Armenian is used. There are some variants of Armenian that are not mutually intelligible. Through the 20th century, scholars at all levels made a great

Movement in Islam from mid-18th century, calling for a renewal of the Muslim spirit. Includes prohibitions and commandments.
Bible. In Islam there are 99 names of God, but these are also not to be considered as proper names the idea of actually naming God for Muslims, will be regarded as a way of reducing God into a human framework. The high number of names must be understood as an expression of the incapacity of man to grasp the total nature of God. Most common of the 99 names are ar-Rahman, the Merciful, and ar-Rahim, the Compassionate..Ritual prayer or divine service in Islam, one of Islam Five Pillars. The

Holy man or woman (waliya) in Islam. Often translated into English with "Saint".
Religions it can be misleading, as the Christian concept is different from what is found in f.x. Islam and Judaism. All religions have had, and have, functions elevating certain individuals into a position worthy veneration or deep respect, but many scholars prefer to use other designations than saint . Sainthood belongs to the pan-religious idea that there are certain individuals by nature or by deed that represents a fragment of the divine on earth, or that these people have taken a position

A religious endowment, giving property, as regulated by Islamic law. Revenues finance mosques and another religious institutions.
Mecca, agrarian law from Madina, law from the conquered countries, Roman law and Jewish law. Also, calling the Sharia law can be misleading, as Sharia extends beyond law. Sharia is the totality of religious, political, social, domestic and private life. Sharia is primarily meant for all Muslims, but applies to a certain extent also for people living inside a Muslim society. Muslims are not totally bound by the Sharia when they live or travel outside the Muslim world. Dogmatically, Sharia is not

Palestinian territory, situated west of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, and east of Israel. Population is 2.1 million, of which 87% are Palestinian Sunni Muslims, 8% are Palestinian Christians, a
By the Roman emperor, Vespasian, near the site of Shechem. The city is named Flavia Neapolis, and could thrive from an abundant water supply from springs. Later the city is renamed Julia Neapolis. 636 Captured by Arab Muslims. 1099 Captured by the Crusaders, who subjugate it, and name it Naples. 1187 Captured by Saladin, and returned to Muslim control. 1927 Heavily destroyed by an earthquake. 1930s Nablus becomes an important centre for Arab resistance to Jewish immigration to Palestine. 1949

Republic under partial Moroccan occupation. Includes details about its geography and history.
Foreign languages. Religion is Sunni Islam, with strong presence of Sufism..19th century Develops into an important trade centre for the region. 1902 Becomes a religious centre headed by Shaykh Ma& , al-Aynayn (meaning Water of the the two springs). 1913 Smara is destroyed by French troops, who transfer control of the village to the Spanish. 1934 Smara is sacked by Spanish troops following a local rebellion. 1975 Spain gives up its claim on Western Sahara, fighting between Polisario and Moroccan

Honorary title used for spiritual leaders in Sufism, for prominent Shaykhs. From word meaning "gate", refers to one who can lead the believers into communication with the other side, the divine spher
And there are no obligations to perform the hajj, the Muslim pilgrimage..The Druze follow a life style of isolation in which no conversion is allowed, neither out of, or into, the religion. When Druze live among people of other religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion and their own safety. They can perform prayer as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are. This system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be

Religion that began on May 23, 1844 in Shiraz, Persia. Centered around the Bab, who is considered to be the mirror of God. Includes certain elements in Islam and has redefined them, thereby introduci
Administrative centre. The tomb of Baha ullah is in the nearby city of Akko. Baha i claims to be a universal religion. It calls for better social conditions for the underprivileged, mutual love, harmony between races and religions, equality of the sexes, one language for all, one education for all, nonresistance, bearing injustice with rebellion, and one religion that takes the essence from all the larger religions. Austerities are not welcomed in Baha i, people should feel happy. There are no

Capital of Iraq with an estimated 5.6 million inhabitants. Describes its economy, peoples, education, culture, city structure, Old Baghdad and history.
Developing nuclear weapons. In late 2002 UN inspectors were admitted back into Iraq following UN Security Resolution 1441 and the clear threat of military action from the USA if Iraq did not comply. The inspectors resumed the control work for establishing any breach on the military regulations imposed on Iraq following the cease fire in 1991. They inspected areas indicated both by Iraqi reports, UN reports and US, British and Israeli intelligence. The inspectors reports indicated that Iraq was

Religion founded in 19th century, growing out of Babism.
Wrote down divine revelations. On his return he included in the Shi& ,i creed that he himself was the one who mirrored God, so that God could be seen by man. By now the followers of Bab faced persecution by the local governor of Shiraz. Bab took Islam as his starting point, but redefined many of the regulations, and polygamy and concubinage were forbidden. But Bab wanted to have all religions join together and recognize him as spiritual leader, thus beginning a new era for humankind. Initially,

Founder of Baha'i, and halfbrother of Subh-i Azal, his later competitor for control of the Babi society. His original name was Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri. (1817-1892).
Harbour has since long silted up, causing much of Akko traditional trade to have been diverted to Haifa further south. The main activities now, are with the steel-rolling mill and the production of matches, tiles and plastic products. There is also some fishing and agriculture. Akko also serves an increasing number of tourists. Akko has good connections with other urban centres of Israel. Nahairiyya is 10 km north, Nazareth 45 km southeast and Haifa 25 km south. Akko has several historical

Archipelago of 33 islands in the Persian Gulf off the coast of Saudi Arabia. Includes information about its political situation, economy, health and education, religion and its people, and history.
Used vocabulary that exceeds most languages in the Western world..Arabic writing is an alphabetic script, based upon distinct characters, adjoined to other characters, which in most cases change their looks depending on where they stand in the word. The Arabic alphabet developed from Nabatean characters, one of the West Aramaic languages of the ancient Middle East. Arabic writing is put together of 28 signs, where 3 have vowel qualities (a, i, u, but i is often used for the letter y, and u often

Statement issued by the British government in 1917, initiating the process that led to the establishment of the State of Israel.
A person whose religion is by definition Judaism, even if not by conviction. The definition of a Jew is not linked to race, Jews constitute many different ethnic groups. The background of the name Jew continues to be discussed. The generally accepted theory is that it is the name for the inhabitants of Judah, the last surviving Jewish state. Judah was itself the name of one of 12 tribes. Other common names that were displaced by jew are Hebrews and Israelites. A person who is Jewish by birth is

Beduins immigrating to Maghreb, mainly Algeria and Tunisia, in the 11th century, coming from Egypt.
Areas. At the same time many governments have taken strong measures to regulate nomadic lifestyles. Historically their way of living has represented a military threat to urban rulers, and it has also been important to decide who belongs where, who owns the land and how will taxes be collected..Even in modern Arabic, Bedouin dialectic characteristics are evident. Bedouin Arabic is spoken by more Arabs than just the ones keeping up their traditional lifestyles. The Bedouin Arabic is divided into

In Islam, divine blessing that is normally associated with holy men or women, waliy, either in life or in death.
Israel (as one of the official languages), Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Arabic is used by around 250 million people, but is understood by up to four times more among Muslims around the world. Arabic is also central to other languages in the Muslim world, as a large exporter of words and expressions. Arabic writing is also used for other languages like Persian and Urdu..Arabic is a language

City in southern Iraq with an estimated 1.3 million inhabitants. Economy is focused on refining and exporting of oil and chemicals, and agricultural production of wool, grain and dates.

Ceremony marking the entering of the girl into adult observance of Jewish religious activities.
A lore that has to be interpreted in the context of the age and situation of its users. Traditions tell that the Torah was offered to all peoples of the world, but it was only the Jews who accepted it. But still, the Torah is not closed to non-Jews, and pagans (seen from a Jewish point of view) reading the Torah are praised..The central house of religious activities in Jewish religion, and is the most important religious institution along with the temple of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 70 CE.

Arabs, recognized by their nomadic lifestyles, specific dialects, social structures and culture.
Peninsula, but also forms the core of much literature up until our time. Modern Standard Arabic is a modernization of the structures of classical Arabic, and includes words for modern phenomenons as well as a rich addition from the many dialects spoken all over the Arabic world. Spoken Arabic is a mixed form, which has many variations, and often a dominating influence from local languages (from before the introduction of Arabic). Differences between the various variants of spoken Arabic can be

Israeli prime minister 1977-1983, leader of the country's struggle for the peace treaty with Egypt which was signed in 1979, and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. Includes biography. (1913-19
Resistance, twice arrested for cooperating with the Germans. 1946 Put to trial for having planned to assassinate a politician, but was acquitted. 1952 July 23 Army coup led by Nasser, against King Faruk, in which Sadat is a close partner. 1954 February Central in deposing of Naguib. 1964 Sadat is appointed Vice President. 1966 Steps down as Vice President. 1969 Appointed Vice President for the second time. 1970 October 15 Becomes president following the death of Nasser. 1973 October 6 In 1973

Capital of Lebanon with an estimated 1.5 million inhabitants. Divided into three regions: east for the Christians, west for Sunnis and south for Shi'is and Palestinians.
Where 3 have vowel qualities (a, i, u, but i is often used for the letter y, and u often for the letter w). Since some regions of the Arabic world have different dialects, extra letters have been added. The sounds that are not covered by standard Arabic are p, g, v. These are written almost like the letter that comes closest in standard Arabic, but with an extra dot. The following Arabic letters does not have any correspondence in the Latin alphabet kh (equals German ch), gh (a softer version of

President of Tunisia since 1987. Includes biography and photo.
The coming Islamist society will be an even better society than the one of the Golden Age. However, there are no Muslim sources indicating that the Islam of the Golden Age was as strict, conservative, intolerant and violent as the present Islamist ideology. All indications show that it was the liberal Islam that paved the ground for cultural, social and military achievements of those days values foreign to all major Islamist groups. Hence, there is reason to say that the Islamist idea of the

First president of Algeria (1963-65) and a soldier in the French army during World War II, where he was decorated for bravery. One of the nine legendary members of the revolutionary committee that de
Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle language in most countries covered by the Encyclopaedia of the Orient Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel (as one of the official languages), Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Arabic is used by around 250 million people, but is understood

Second largest city in northeastern Libya with an estimated 950,000 inhabitants. Industries include salt processing, oil refining, food processing, cement manufacturing, tanning, brewing, sponge and
Often has been central in forming unique identities for the different churches, stories about martyrs and saints are often found. Central to first 2 levels of metanarratives or myths is the notion that there is only one god, and that man is offered eternal life in Paradise after death, or they will be sentenced to harsh punishment. As Christianity understands it, the Old Testament contains the promise of Jesus as the Messiah. This creates a great divide between Christians and Jews, the two

Group of languages, from Morocco to Egypt, featuring about 300 local dialects.
Itself, that is visible from a distance. According to reports from 1850, about 3,500 people lived here in the time when Douiret was a caravan relay post. Today, only 5 families, with 20-30 members keep up the tradition. They have even taken care of their Berber language. But what is happening now is that all young are not only leaving old Douiret in order to live in the new, and dull, settlement a bit down the valley,- are also changing into Arabic language. When you walk along the one long

People living in North Africa, from Morocco's west coast to the oasis Siwa in Egypt, from Tunisia's north tip to the oases in mid-Sahara.
Nile. Still the desert continues to the east of the river until it reaches the Red Sea, but this is not considered a part of the Sahara. Sahara is very dry but there is an annual rainfall in most regions, although just a few dozens of millimetre. Sahara has a subtropical climate in its northern parts, and a tropical one in the south. Winters in the north are cold to cool, in the south, mild. Summers are hot all over the desert. The highest temperature every recorded is 58C in Aziziyah, Libya.

Collection of religious texts central to Christianity and Judaism. The origin of the word comes from the Greek, "biblia", meaning "books" and refers to the Phoenician city of Byblos, which in the 1st
Strongly influences Hebrew with rules of syntax and with additions to the vocabulary. Last century BCE The Hebrew alphabet, as we know it today, is believed to be developed. 200 CE Development of what is now called Mishnahic Hebrew, or rabbinic Hebrew the language used in the Mishnah. In the following years, the guttural sounds of Hebrew are simplified, and there is a strong influx of words from Greek, Latin, and Persian. 9th century The use of Hebrew is in decline, resulting in it not being

Opening phrase of all suras in the Koran, meaning "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate".
Chapter of the Koran. In total the Koran consists of 114 suras. The suras& , content, and organization, as well as their order in the Koran are firmly set down. However, scientists are haunted by how little we know of the actual process of structuring the elements. The suras are not collected in chronological entities, based on the moment of revelation. From the Koran itself we learn that the verses, ayas, from time periods far in between are organised side by side in the same sura. In the

City in Tunisia with an estimated 100,000 inhabitants, situated north of Tunis. Economy of the area is focused on fishing, fish products, olives, and the production of flour and olive oil.
And the few leftovers after ancient Carthage (one of the banlieus, on the coast some kilometres out of Tunis). The old town is quite large and in excellent condition, complete with many of its original open-air markets and city gates. Tunis has two universities, of which the oldest, the University of Tunis was founded in 1960..2 millennium BCE Founded by the Libyans, and possibly named Tunes. 9th century Surrendered to the coast to the Phoenicians of Tyre, who then founded Carthage. 146

City in Algeria with 180,000 inhabitants, located at the base of the Atlas Mountains. Includes brief history.
This position is held by Caesarea (Cherchell). 429 CE Algiers comes under control of the Vandals. 6th century Algiers becomes part of the Byzantine empire. 650 Algiers comes under Arab control. 950 The present Algiers is founded by the Berber ruler Bologhin Ibn Ziri, the founder of the Zirid Dynasty. The name is changed into al-Jaz ir, which is the name it still holds, and from which Algiers is derived. From this time on, Algiers becomes a very important city. 1159 Algiers is occupied by the

Former President of Algeria, and Chief of the State in the National Liberation Army in 1960. Includes photo and brief biographical sketch. (1932-1978).
Islamist propaganda across the nation. Benjedid saw that the actual impact of his power was challenged, both from Islamist forces, and from the military. On a wider scale, this involved pressure from Muslim and Arab groups and countries, and Algeria need to be on good terms with Western powers. This would much limit his actual ability to carry through his aims. Under most of his rule, Algeria continued to be one of the leading Third World countries in the world. Unfortunately, his presidency

Leader of the independence struggle of Tunisia, and the country's first president from 1957 to 1987. Includes brief biography. (1903-2000).
Are some colonial houses, and some small Roman ruins in town..5th century BCE Founded by the Phoenicians as Thabraca, but it is likely that there had been a Berber settlement here prior to this. 2nd century Under Roman control, Thabraca is the shipping port for Chemtou marble excavated in the southern parts of the mountains. 3rd century CE Thabraca becomes an important centre for Christianity. 7th century Falls to the Muslims after long time resistance. 1542 The island off Tabarka is bought by

Term used for congregations in Islam that are partly set apart from the general community of Islam.
Movement in Islam from mid-18th century, calling for a renewal of the Muslim spirit, with cleansing of the moral, and removal of all innovations to Islam, bid& ,a, even laws and regulations agreed upon through consensus, ijma. The core of Wahhabism is.The movement has played an important role in the funding of Saudi Arabia. Wahhabism is known for its conservative regulations which have impact on all aspects of life. It has been recognized as being in accordance with Hanbali doctrine. The term

City in western Iran with about 690,000 inhabitants. Economical base is production of grain, flour, textiles, oil, sugar, electric equipment, and carpets. Majority of population is Kurdish. Include
Governments, with funds from Iran, from 1962 to 1970, and 1974 to 1975. The Kurds were promised autonomy in 1970, and they had to give up fighting after a normalization of relations between Iran and Iraq in 1975. A Kurdish rebellion in Turkey started in 1984, and this still persists even if nothing has been gained, and casts dark shadows on the image that the international society has of Turkey. A Kurdish rebellion in Iraq started on the eve of the Gulf war in 1991, but was quickly suppressed by

City in Turkey with about 1,050,000 inhabitants, situated a few kilometers inland from the Sea of Marmara. Noted for its green mosque, sulphur springs and baths.
For a 4 month long spree of atrocities, but the city returns to Ottoman control later the same year. 1920 Captured by the Greeks. 1922 Edirne is returned to the new republic of Turkey, after the fall of the Ottoman Empire. 1923 Turkish sovereignty is confirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne..(1258-1324) Ottoman bey from around 1300-1324, while he was the ruler of his principality from 1293. Osman is often referred to as sultan, but this title was not introduced in the empire until 1394. Osman was the

Only part of the Avesta, the collection of holy texts in Zoroastrianism, that is fully preserved. Includes the long night-office ritual in Zoroastrianism, which shall protect against demons, the inha
Society. In some eras, the high-priest was influential enough to topple the political power. This was especially the case with the High Priest of Amon at Thebes during the New Kingdom..Priests in Mesopotamia acted out their priesthood in manners quite similar to that of Ancient Egypt. In Sumer, the king also had to be the highest priest, known as a priest-king. Below him, many of the bureaucrats had status as priests. Mesopotamian priestesses are noted for having worn false beards during

One of the Amesha Spentas in Zoroastrianism. Represented by the oxen, and symbolizes the good pastoral life.
Becomes religiously active from the age of 7. When a believer dies, his body is brought up to the Tower of Silence, where the corps shall be eaten by vultures, so that neither fire nor earth becomes contaminated. Still, there are graveyards for the believers in Iran, but these represent a part of the cult that is influenced by the dominant religion of the region, Islam..Zoroastrianism is to some extent a monotheistic religion, in the sense that there is a supreme god, Ahura Mazda, that is

Collection of 39 religious texts, called books, in Judaism (referred to as "Bible") and Christianity. Includes list of books.
Becomes the language with which the Old Testament later is written. 3rd century BCE Jews living in Palestine starts to speak more and more Aramaic. Jews outside Palestine speak the languages of the communities in which they settled. In this period, Aramaic strongly influences Hebrew with rules of syntax and with additions to the vocabulary. Last century BCE The Hebrew alphabet, as we know it today, is believed to be developed. 200 CE Development of what is now called Mishnahic Hebrew, or

City in Sudan with 1.5 million inhabitants and situated on the western bank of the Nile. Important for market activities.
Extremes in temperatures, both cold and hot, heat primarily because it loses it quickly since all fat is located in the hump on the back. The economic importance of camels has disappeared to a large extent, compared to pre-modern times, when they were used in caravans, for transportation, as well as for its meat and milk. Its wool was used for clothes, and the manure was used for fuel after being dried. In these times, the camel was also a symbol of status and wealth. The modern era has not been

City in western Algeria with an estimated 860,000 inhabitants. Port ships natural petroleum, and many industrial products.
And strong and emphasized versions of the letters t, d, s, z, h. One letter, called hamza, is not even pronounced, other than as a stop. In transcriptions it is marked with a only. Vowels are not letters, only signs added to the letter preceding them. In most cases the vowels are not written, so that the name Muhammad is written mhmd . The vowels are normally only indicated in special cases, like where there is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school

Derived from Latin word, meaning the lands where the sun rises, as seen from Europe.
Designation of the region in the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, particularly Lebanon and Syria, but also for Greece, Turkey, Israel, and Egypt. The word comes from French lever , meaning to rise , and is an equivalent of the Arabic Mashriq, the country where the sun rises . The introduction of the word in world vocabulary came with the French mandate of Syria and Lebanon, lasting from 1920 until the mid-1940s..Geographical region normally used for Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and

Agreement between representatives for the Palestinian people, and the state of Israel. Concerned the West Bank, and covered security issues, Palestinian elections, transfer of land, transfer of civil
Becomes president. 1956 Participates in the Suez campaign, in the Egyptian Army. 1956 Moves to Kuwait, where he works as an engineer, and establishes his own entrepreneurial company. 1957 Starts Al Fatah. Al Fatah conducts several attacks into Israel. 1967 Al Fatah is linked to PLO. 1968 Arafat is elected chairman of PLO. He starts working to bring PLO from an ideology of Pan-Arabism to Palestinian nationalism. 1974 Arafat delivers a speech to the UN General Assembly. 1982 PLO is forced to move

Agreement between PLO and Israel that was signed on September 13, 1993. Name came from secret negotiations that had been conducted through 1993 outside Oslo, Norway.
Pilgrims, resulting in growth in its population. 7th century Captured by the Muslims. 12th century Comes under the control of the Crusaders, with results in a growth of the population. 1840 Razed by the Egyptian general Ibrahim Pasha. 1920 Becomes part of the British mandate of Palestine. 1948 Jordan occupies the West Bank including Jericho. 1949 With the end of the First Palestinian War, Jericho becomes the site of a large refugee camp. 1952 Jordan annexes the West Bank. 1967 Following the

Town in Mauritania with estimated 3,000 inhabitants and situated in Sahara, in the southeastern corner of the country. Economical base is trade and some agriculture.
Several major deposits of iron ore, while smaller deposits are found in Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Western Sahara and Niger. Copper is found in Mauritania and manganese in Algeria. Small deposits of uranium are widely distributed in the Sahara, while Niger has the largest deposits. Phosphates are found in great quantities in Morocco and Western Sahara, and are already well-exploited. Algeria phosphate production is smaller, but large enough for exports. Oil is mainly found in Algeria, and is of

City in Morocco with estimated 40,000 inhabitants. Center of Sahara tourism, with many luxury hotels. Has also served as the center of international film makers.
The untouched irregularity of the kasbah streets adds to the feeling of authenticity of the kasbah area. All in all the kasbah is more than large enough to satisfy any average busload coming in for a number of good photo opportunities. People here are nice, but note that almost every young man walking around is looking for an opportunity of working as a guide. And that is quite unnecessary around here, and it will also hinder you from having contact with the locals and the the kids..

Ornate instrument made of wood, with six double strings, a pear-shaped body and a non-fretted neck. Originated in Pharaonic Egypt, where it was known as Nefer.
Systems. Islamism has been felt by non-Arabs as another way to impose Arab language and culture on them, and Islamism has had to change its form to catch on in these societies (Iran Islamism has major differences from the Arab Islamism, since almost all Iranians are not Arabs)..

City in Morocco with an estimated 880,000 inhabitants, situated in northeastern Morocco, near the Algerian border. Economy is based upon communications, wine, citrus fruit, grapes, wheat, barley, veg
As always in Morocco, the food you buy in the restaurants where the patron, waiter and the chef is the same person, is the best. Delicious, fresh, clean, and skillfully spiced. In Oujda, fried small fish was a big hit, both among locals and foreigners..

City in Western Sahara (occupied by Morocco) with an estimated 300,000 inhabitants. Economy is based upon governmental subsidies, military activities, regional administration and trade.
Rural region. City populations are in some cases the population of a municipality, but municipalities can be smaller than the city proper, or they may include vast rural areas. LookLex definition of a city or town requires continued settlement, and defines the border between neighbouring cities to be the administrative border, a river or a major highway. Our primary source for population data is City Population, but LookLex assess each figure, and in 5 to 10% of the cases we make a different

British archaeologist, adventurer, soldier and author. Known as Lawrence of Arabia after cooperating with Arab forces during the World War 1, where he was strongly involved in the actions that drove
Population defined as Arabs, these territories were already peopled by a population far larger than the immigrants. For a number of reasons, however, Arab lifestyles, Arab identity and Arabic language would come to replace the original lifestyles, identities and languages. Arabs would come to have some influence to the race, but in most cases the Arab peoples living in lands originally non-Arab, represent about the same racial composition as before the Arabization. Hence the former Egyptians,

Designation of the region in the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, particularly Lebanon and Syria, but also for Greece, Turkey, Israel, and Egypt.

Part of Sahara. Covers eastern Libya and western Egypt, and touches Sudan and Chad.
Sea level. The Western Desert housed a number of ancient settlements, Dush (travel section), Kharga, Bahariyya and Siwa among the foremost. Deep into history, even the remote Gilf Kebir was inhabited, famous for its prehistoric rock art..Kharga (100,000 inhabitants) Dakhla (75,000) Bahariyya (30,000) Siwa (15,000) Paris (6,000). This oasis is often considered part of Kharga, but 90 km south and with discontinued vegetation, it may just as well be considered independent, which also corresponds

Israeli party formed in 1973, representing conservative powers in Israeli politics. Its name is Hebrew for "unity".
Surrenders, after seeing Golan Heights come under Israeli control. 1973 October The Yom Kippur comes as a reaction to the territorial losses and the humiliation of the Six-Day War. Israeli withdrawal from Sinai starts, and goes on for the next 3 years..(Brest Litovsk, Russia 1913-Israel 1992) Israeli prime minister 1977-1983, leader of the Israeli struggle for the peace treaty with Egypt which was signed in 1979, winner of Nobel Peace Prize 1978. Begin was a strong and outspoken conservative

Included in the religious text of Christianity, the New Testament, and arranged as the third book. Includes details of style, authorship and date.
That each of the gospels represents the tradition, or even orientation, of the apostle or early Christian whose name it bears. The gospel of Thomas contains a few stories, but mostly sayings, while the 4 dominant ones all have a chronology of 3 parts. The first is about Jesus before he arrives in Jerusalem his life as a preacher of both challenge and hope, all set within the context of a new interpretation of Judaism. The second part represents Jesus in Jerusalem, a part leading up to the

City in Egypt with 200,000 inhabitants, situated on the Nile in central Egypt. Economy is based upon tourism, and production of cereals, sugarcane and dates.
Nubians of today are Sudanese. With only a population of slightly above 300,000 they are a minority in both countries. Nevertheless being of African descent they resemble other Sudanese people more than Egyptians. Nubians in both Sudan and Egypt have suffered a lot from intentional overlooking to their history and culture as well as displacement, relocation due to flooding and inundation of their homeland by dams constructed south of Egypt. During this century the Nubian homeland had been

Theoretical gospel, of which no parts exist, and of which there are no direct, nor indirect, historical sources.
Gospel elements. These are too limited to count as full gospels. 3. Infancy gospels. These scripts try to shed light on a part of Jesus& , life that is not mentioned in the canonical gospels..Apocryphal gospels have helped scholars understand early Christian history, but also in the understanding of canonical gospels. The canonical Gospel of John represented for long a mystery with its dialogues between Jesus and the disciples. But with the finds at Nag Hammadi, with texts like the Gospel of

Arabic reference to Sultan and sole ruler of Oman since 1970. Includes biography. (1940- ).
Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle language in most countries covered by the Encyclopaedia of the Orient Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel (as one of the official languages), Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Arabic is used by around 250 million people, but is understood

Judge in Islam, whose responsibility is restricted to issues connected to religion.
Based on the will of God. This is clear from what we read in the Koran Koran sura 45 The Kneeling.. then we gave you a Sharia in religion, follow it, and do not follow the lust of those who do not know..But despite this, many parts of the Sharia have no or little importance in most Muslim societies, except in those that have gone through a phase of Islamization (Sudan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and to some extent Libya). But the Sharia has much importance in domestic judicial fields like family,

Independent monarchy (emirate), divided into 9 municipalities. Estimated 817,000 inhabitants. Borders Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.
And Qatar should run, has been revived. Before becoming emir, he was active in modernizing both the military as well as the country infrastructure..1950 Born in Doha, as son of Shaykh Khalifa bin Hamad ath-Thani. 1971 Graduates from Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, Britain. Joins the Qatari military forces with the rank of major. 1975 Appointed major-general and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. 1977 May Appointed crown prince, whereupon he becomes minister of defence. 1991 Under control

Depression in western Egypt, with a size of 19,500 km². Composed of sand desert, salt lakes and marshes.
See also Western Desert Part of Sahara. The desert is very dry, and consists mainly of sand dunes. The Libyan desert covers eastern Libya and western Egypt, and touches Sudan and Chad. The Libyan desert is framed by Fezzan, Tibesti, Uwaynat, and the oases along the old run of the Nile..

Direction in which the believer is oriented for salat, the prayer of Islam. Located in a mosque, indicated by a mihrab, a niche in the wall.
Ritual prayer or divine service in Islam, one of Islam Five Pillars. The translation of salat into prayer is only partially correct, as the Arabic word for this is du , and can refer to any form of prayer performed anywhere and under any circumstance. Salat however can only be performed with standard movements, and in conjunction with one of the day 5 prayer moments. Salat appears not to have occurred in Mecca before Muhammad, and according to Western scholars, he must have gotten the principle

City in Iran with over 780,000 inhabitants. Area grows grain, oilseeds, vegetables, cotton, fruits, nuts and opium poppies. Industries produce cotton textiles, shoes, pottery and glass.
Congregation and an adviser in all questions that relate somehow to religion..There are several different nuances in views of the imam among the Shi is, but a common assumption is that he is the leader of all Muslims, and, by extension, a leader in the world. In Twelver Shi i Islam, imams existed only through the first centuries of Muslim history, possibly into the 10th century. There are differences about what makes an imam an imam, and therefore who may become imam. At the time of the first

Arabic word for Jerusalem, capital of Israel, with over 610,000 inhabitants. Includes articles on culture, religious importance, economy and history timeline.
The earliest cities of Assyria were Ashur, Nineveh and Urbilum. In modern terms, Assyria is largely the region of Kurdish Iraq Nineveh corresponds with Mosul, Urbilum with Irbil. In ancient times, Assyria bordered Urartu to the north, Elam to the east and Babylonia to the south. The western region was largely uninhabited, before Ancient Syria..Basic to the central region of Assyria was farming, fed by both the Tigris river and water from the Armenian mountains in the north, and the Zagros

Universal ethical principle of ancient Egyptian religion, denoting 'justice', 'order', 'truth'.
In ancient Egyptian religion, god representing the sun, as well as being in many myths the god who created the world (other myths ascribed this to other gods). Re was also the origin of Maat, denoting that he was the source of right and justice in the world. Re was depicted with the head of a hawk, and his chief symbols were the sun disc and the obelisk. The worship of Re originated in Heliopolis. Kings of Egypt held the tile Son of Re , as kings claimed their origin with the gods. In the myths

City in Saudi Arabia with 870,000 inhabitants, situated in Hijaz, in western Saudi Arabia.
Region and province in western Saudi Arabia, comprising the cities of Mecca and Madina, Jeddah and At Ta& ,if. The region is defined by the Red Sea region of the Arabian peninsula, ending with the mountains in the south where Yemen begins. Hijaz neighbours Najd to the east, the other major region of modern Saudi Arabia. Tihamah in the south is defined by the mountains. The land of Hijaz is between 800,000 and 900,000 km. It has no permenent rivers or lakes, and the highest point is the Sawdah

Name of north- western Africa, coming from Arabic word for "the land where the sun sets".
Nouns and verbs are built from a stem of 3 consonants. From these 3 consonants, a large range of words are derived there are 10 forms of verbs, there are a number of nouns which can be both feminine and masculine. As an example, s-l-m is the root of the words Islam, muslim, salam (peace), salama (safety), in addition to many others. Arabic grammar is fairly simple compared to Western languages, but the language has a richness in its used vocabulary that exceeds most languages in the Western

Egyptian writer, educated at King Fuad 1 University (now University of Cairo).
Its credibility, although the Arab League has managed at times to form a powerful unity. The dream of uniting independent countries is no longer an issue, since the leaders would never agree upon who should give up his position as president or king, where the capital should lie, etc. But in the hearts of the Arabs, Arab unity is a reality, often apparent in matters concerning political or religious differences between Arab countries and Western countries. On the other side, an important dividing

Jewish philosopher and physician.
Peace, and answered nothing. Again the high priest asked him, and said unto him, Art thou the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?.The ideology of the Mahdi in Islam has many similarities with the Jewish Christian Messiah. The ideology is central in Shi& ,i Islam but has a certain presence in Sunni Islam as well. While Christian and Jewish thinkers would say that this ideology is strongly influenced by their two religions, Muslim thinkers would say that Mahdi represent the true form of saviour

Capital of Bahrain with 150,000 inhabitants, situated on the Persian Gulf, north on Bahrain Island.
Encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..

The only surviving Gnostic religion, now with no more than 20,000 adherents.
In North Africa and the Middle East today, there are about 19 million Christians. Christian is also used as an adjective, defining something as belonging to Christianity. What qualifies to call someone Christian, is a combination of the belief in Jesus Christ as a central representation of the divine on earth, the belief in at least the Gospels and the belief in an eternal life for the believers. From these common ideas, a number of variations spin. The definition of what are sacred text varies

Founder of religion, now called Manichaeism.
Important to Jews than any place are to Christians, and just as important as Mecca is to Muslims. It is mainly because of the destroyed Temple that Jerusalem has become so important to Jewish identity. The only remaining part of it, the Western Wall, or Wailing Wall is it is also called, is the holiest place on earth. The second most important place is Hebron, Palestine, where Abraham was buried. The Mt. Sinai, where Moses got the covenant is also important, but not central in Jewish life. For

World religion founded by Mani.
Deceased..Being one of the original Gnostic religions, Manichaeism has the concept of a seed of light. This concept is largely related to that of a soul, but there is a major difference in it being an estranged element to the body, and impersonal..In religions, the concept of a supernatural power that is considered worthy of reverence and respect. The nature of a god follows several patterns, and in some cases, not even a pattern. A god may be distant and inactive, or omnipresent, omnipotent and

Christian text, Gospel that has been included in the New Testament, as the second book.
This, nor is it mentioned indirectly in any sources of any kind. It is the New Testament texts of Christianity that represent the oldest material available, and the texts of Islam (in the Koran) and the religion of the Mandeans date hundreds of years later. The Jewish view is also old, but has developed over centuries, and is often a refutation of the Christian view..There are several ways of understanding Jesus inside Christianity. In the Levant, the nature of Jesus have been by far the most

Archaeological site in Northern Iran.
Decline of Assyrian power. Around 745 King Tiglath-Pileser 3 conquers Syria and Israel, and he becomes king of Babylonia. Under him the power of the king grew stronger and an army was established. He conducted a policy of deporting peoples from their homelands in order to reduce their national identity. 722-705 Under Sargon 2, Assyrian territory is extended to southern Anatolia and the Persian Gulf. He also has the population of Israel deported. In order to get better control over his territory,

City in Morocco with 970,000 inhabitants, situated in the interior of middle Morocco.
People living in North Africa and the Middle East, from western Morocco to Oman, and from Turkey in the north to Yemen and Sudan in the south. Arabs are living in an area of 10 million km, with a total population of 250 million. This makes them by far the largest population in the region. About 4 million Arabs live in Europe, and 2 million in the Americas. The Arabic heartland is Hijaz (now western Saudi Arabia) and Yemen. Around the year 610 CE, the birth year of Islam, this was a trade area

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