www.reference.dmoz2007.org

Ancient fortress and national symbol for Israel.
Consider such if his mother is Jewish. This is the case with Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, while Reform Judaism states that a child is Jewish if either one of the parents is a Jew. Anyone can convert into Judaism, and become a Jew. A converted Jew is considered equal to Jews by birth. One slight hinder is with the rabbinate of Israel which demands that the conversion has to be under the supervision of an Orthodox rabbi. This has caused problem for some groups of immigrants to Israel, but

Another word for the Middle East, coming from the Arabic word for "the land where the sun rises."
Nouns and verbs are built from a stem of 3 consonants. From these 3 consonants, a large range of words are derived there are 10 forms of verbs, there are a number of nouns which can be both feminine and masculine. As an example, s-l-m is the root of the words Islam, muslim, salam (peace), salama (safety), in addition to many others. Arabic grammar is fairly simple compared to Western languages, but the language has a richness in its used vocabulary that exceeds most languages in the Western

First king of Numidia.
Establishment of Greek trading colonies in Sicily, the position of Carthage is placed in jeopardy, and a conflict is inevitable. 6th century Carthage conquers the territory of Libyan tribes and old Phoenician colonies and takes control over the North African coast, stretching from today Morocco to the borders of today Egypt, not to mention, Sardinia, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and the western half of Sardinia. 480 Battle against the Greeks in Sicily, resulting in a Carthaginian defeat. 450

Village in Tunisia with about 5,000 inhabitants.
That Matmata is presently passing through, where the discovery of that the less you squeeze the tourist the more money you make is still in the future. But also, this region is unfortunately never mentioned when Tunisians talk about which Tunisians are the most friendly..Matmata is so great that it is about to become destroyed. The town is a must-see for tourists to Tunisia, and from early morning till late afternoon bus load after bus load arrive in this small village. Matmata fame comes from

Christian text, gospel included in the New Testament, arranged as the first book.
Gospels have many elements in common, many of the same stories, and a presentation of Jesus that is fairly parallel. While there are significant differences and contradictions, there are also numerous examples of identical phrasing and chronology. The language of the 3 Synoptics are on different levels, Mark being somewhat basic and Matthew and Luke representing a higher literary standard. The names attributed to Gospel authorship represent long-established traditions by the church, although, in

Independent republic, divided into 12 regions and the capital district.
The figures given by LookLex are estimates, and heavily rounded off. Accurate population figures presented by many other sources are deceptive and suggest a level of accuracy that does not exist. With few exceptions, urban population figures are no more than advanced guesswork. Different countries count urban population according to varying methods. In many cases there are no official figures, there may never have been a proper census. There exists no consensus about how to define a border

Meaning 'birthday' is a celebration of a holy person in Islam.
, in Arabic, khalifatu r-rasl, which has become Caliph in English. Ali accepted this choice, but with the death of Abu Bakr and Umar in 634 and 644, he tried again to become Caliph, but there were strong forces working against him, so he didn t succeed. Finally, after the assassination of the 3rd Caliph, Uthman, it was Ali turn to become Caliph. All through his governing period, Ali faced strong opposition. First he was opposed by A isha, Muhammad favourite wife, but the strongest opposition was

City in Saudi Arabia with 1.4 million inhabitants. The most holy city in Islam.
Believes is pointing to the invasion from Yemen, where an elephant was brought along in order to smash the Ka ba, en event which is dated to 570 CE. The setting of this date may well be much wrong, as Muhammad recorded age at certain times has been used as the main source for the estimation. Muhammad family belonged to the clan of Hashim, a branch of the Quraysh tribe. While the Quraysh were dominating Mecca, the Hashimis had little but religious prestige connected to the pagan shrine Ka ba.

Israeli politician, prime minister from 1969 to 1974, co-founder of the state of Israel.
The state of Israel, Hebrew becomes the official language..There is no single constitution of Israel, rather a collection of primary and secondary laws. Almost all of these laws were issued from 1950 until 1953. The primary group includes Law of Return (1950), Nationality Law (1952), State President Law (1952), Education Law (1953), Yad-va-Shem Memorial Law (1953). The secondary group of laws include Law and Administration Ordinance (1948), Knesset Election Law (1951), Law of Equal Rights for

City of Morocco with 680,000 inhabitants, situated in northern Morocco.
L-Mu min excelled in building expensive palaces and monuments, rich in ornamentation. Famous Moroccan structures, like the Kutubiyya mosque in Marrakech and the old mosque in Taza, are from his period in power. The Almohad crusade to purify Islam did not succeed as intended. Traditional Islam as Ibn Tumart perceived it, was equally dilluted by mystical movements of Sufism as well as the philosophical schools of Ibn Tufayl and Averres as before..1117 Ibn Tumart returns to Morocco after performing

City of ancient Egypt, situated on the west bank of the Nile, 25 km south of today's Cairo.
Used 3 forms of writing hieroglyphs, hieratic script and demotic script. Neither of these scripts allowed the writing of vowels. From this, much confusion has arisen over the exact pronunciation of words. Coptic script used an alphabet, with signs for vowels..

City in Iran with 1.9 million inhabitants, at an elevation of 985 metres above sea level.
(Madina 765- Tus 818) Eighth Imam of the Twelver Shi i Islam (799- 818) Ali ar-Rida Imamate coincided with a great reversal of fortune for the Shi i. He attained the Imamate at the age of 35 after the brutal persecution and martyrdom of his father, Musa al Kazim, at the hands of Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. After Harun death, however, events rapidly evolved and after a civil war between Harun sons al-Amin and al-Ma mun ended in al-Ma mun victory. Ali ar-Rida was called to al-Ma mun capital at Marv in

Algerian political and militant groups.

Geographical area without clear borders, with its centre in the eastern Mediterranean basin.
The imamate..For the Isma ilis, the number 7 has becomes a number of sacred proportions, as is also the case with the original Seveners. The quality of 7 is explained with it being the sum of the 4 directions (north, east, south, west), up, down and the centre. Many theories are formed around incidents and stages in 7 steps. There are f.x. 7 steps of emanation.1. God 2. Universal intelligence, called aql 3. Universal soul, nafs 4. Primeval matter 5. Space 6. Time 7. The world of earth and

Mu'tazilite inquisition, which represents the final break between cohabitation of religion and state in Islam.
Children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in transcriptions they are marked with lines over or under the letter. Due to limited fonts on computers, this encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..(786-833) Caliph of Islam 813-833, belonging to the Abbasid Dynasty. His reign saw more territorial

Niche in a mosque, indicating the qibla, the direction in which a Muslim shall perform his salat.
Word meaning place for prostration and they were used by the early Muslims for houses of worship, even at times for other religions. Today the Arabic masjid , and the English mosque , are used exclusively for the religious houses of Islam. With the significant increase in jamaas (main mosques) after the 9th century, the term masjid came more and more to be used for small and insignificant mosques. Mosques form centres in cities, or in neighbourhoods of cities. This function does not always have

Tower near to, or built into, the structures of a mosque, used to call out the adhan.
Madina al-Munawwara, The Luminous City , or Madina Rasul Allah, City of God Prophet . Madina is short for Madina an-Nabiy , Prophet Town . While services and maintenance with the pilgrimages to Madina employ a large number of the city inhabitants, other activities are still of much importance. Agriculture not longer relies on the traditional wells, but uses pumps. The main produce are dates, other fruits, vegetables and cereals. Dates of Madina are processed and packaged for export. Industries

Pulpit in a mosque, placed next to the mihrab.
Cairo in 1926, that tried to reestablish the Caliphate, did not manage to succeed. Important Muslim countries did not participate, and the resolutions agreed upon did not result in real actions, even if they expressed favour for a Caliphate. Since then, nothing has been done, largely due to nationalism in the different countries. Modern Islamism, as headed by the Muslim Brotherhood, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Osama bin Laden and others have contented that the reestablishment of the Caliphate is the

Marriage institution in Islam, allowing for a lesser form of relationship between man and woman than normal marriage.
Imams, save Husayn, groups differed over who was the right imam. Most of these groups have since long disappeared, but a couple of them still exist. After the 4th imam (died in 712 or 713 CE), one group claimed that Zayd was the rightful new imam, and from this the Zaydis emerged. Some years later (in 765 CE), another group claimed that Ismail was the rightful 7th imam, and from their point of view the Isma ilis developed. At a later stage they either became absorbed by a non-Muslim faith or

City in Morocco with 80,000 inhabitants, situated on the Atlantic Ocean.
There is doubt about the correct meaning of the word, and in reading books for school children. There are also long vowels, and these are written, and in transcriptions they are marked with lines over or under the letter. Due to limited fonts on computers, this encyclopaedia writes such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..Mohammedia& ,s

House of prayer in Islam.
A qadi must be a man educated in Islamic science, and his performance must be totally congruent with Sharia without using his own interpretation. In a trial in front of a qadi, it is the plaintiff who is responsible to bring evidence against the defendant in order to have him or her convicted. There are no appeals to the judgements of a qadi. A qadi must not receive gifts from participants in a trial and he must be careful in engaging himself in trade. Despite the rules for the office, Muslim

Mosque outside Casablanca, Morocco, in celebration of the 60th birthday of King Hassan 2 of Morocco.
Since they were religious buildings and since Christianity was considered as a kin religion to Islam. This typically meant that both Christianity and Christians were regarded with respect by Muslims. Over time, many Christians gradually converted to Islam, and eventually, the building use was more appropriate as a mosque than as a church. Most mosques today are closed to non-Muslims, but this was a regulation that was developed in the first century of Islam. There was an increase in the emphasis

City in Algeria with 120,000 inhabitants, situated in north-western Algeria.
Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle language in most countries covered by the Encyclopaedia of the Orient Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel (as one of the official languages), Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Arabic is used by around 250 million people, but is understood

Mountain in the Anti-Lebanon mountain range, shared between Syria and Lebanon.
He has Assyria divided into 70 provinces. Around 717 King Sargon 2 has Dur-Sharrukin built to become his new capital. 689 King Sennacherib destroys Babylon after several attacks. He later makes Nineveh capital of Assyria. Around 680 King Esarhaddon has Babylon rebuilt. 671 Esarhaddon conquers Memphis, the capital of Egypt. 627 With the death of king Ashurbanipal, there is a court revolution, which results in heavy weakening of Assyria& ,s power. 614 The Medes conquer Ashur. 612 The Medes and the

Egyptian president (1981- ) and military leader.
Iraqi troops are out of Kuwait. February 28, 7.40 o& ,clock After Iraq ceases fighting, the allied forces end their fighting, and a ceasefire takes place..March 3 Provisional truce is accepted by Iraqi representatives. April 6 Permanent cease fire Iraq agrees to pay for damages in Kuwait, to destroy its chemical and biological weapons, as well as weapons of mass destruction. 1996 August 5 The USA issues a report concluding that soldiers, principally from the U.S., fighting in the Gulf War, may

The person calling out for people to come to the mosque to perform salat.
Regulations as to how a woman in a mosque should behave. Mosques can be segregated, either in time, or in space. But through most of Muslim history, women entering mosques have not been welcomed by men. Mosques have in many cases been closed to women, a tradition either regulated by local rules or by habit. Women have, therefore, resorted to pray in their homes. While the salat can be performed anywhere, it is considered more meritorious when performed in the mosque, i.e. together with other

The central messenger and prophet in Islam.
Like Adam, Jesus, Abraham and Moses. With Moses, who resides either in the 6th or 7th heaven, it is emphasized that Muhammad is the foremost of prophets, that he has more followers than himself. Arriving at the top of the heavens, Muhammad begins bartering with God about the number of daily prayers. In a story that appear completely absurd to non-Muslims, but which is part of the establish faith of Muslims, God first instructs Muhammad that a true believer shall pray 50 times per day. Muhammad

Fifth Imam of the Isma'ili and Twelver traditions of Shi'i Islam.
Mecca-Medina period. The Shi i, in their various forms, are significant minorities in Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Bahrain, the Gulf States, Pakistan and India. They represent the overwhelming majority (88%) in Iran where Shi i Islam has been the state religion since the 16th century CE. They are also in majority in Iraq, Yemen and Bahrain..The seeds of schism were planted upon the deathbed of the Prophet Muhammad, when, according to Shi i tradition, he indicated that Ali was to be

The 12th and last Imam of the Twelver Shi'i, also known as Muhammad al Muntazar.
Relied upon the opinions of their Imams, who as descendants of Mohammad and Ali were viewed as having a closer connection to the divine. The Sunni relied on traditions based in theological and juridical schools which involved drawing analogies from the Koran and Hadith, as well as from the consensus of theologians where analogies were not possible. Practically all branches of Shi i Islam agree that the 4 first imams, Ali, Hassan, Husayn, and Ali Zayn l Abidin were correct leaders of Islam. Among

The 9th Imam of the Twelver Shi'i.
Also sometimes referred to as Rafidi, Jafari, Mutawahi, Kizilbash, Imami, Ithna Ashari, and al Khassa. Some offshoots of Shi i Islam include the Druze, Alawites, Alevis, Ahl-e Haqq and the Baha i..

Sultan of Morocco 1927-57, king 1957-61.
International politics. He was also recognized for being one of the most important participants in the Middle East peace process that went on for more than 10 of the last years of his rule..Much of Hassan success on home ground, especially confronting the Islamists, rested in his family claim to be sharifs, descendants of Muhammad, a claim that was widely accepted in Morocco as well as abroad. Also, Hassan was careful to care for Moroccan heritage and religion. The world highest mosque,

Sectarian group in Islam.
Muslims at all. This is particularly the case with historical sources written by Shi is, while Sunni writers have an ambiguous relationship to them. Only Umar 2 (717-20) and Yazid 3 are generally considered to have been just and fair. The Umayyads are most famous for the buildings they erected, like the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem (690s) and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus (705). The Umayyads extended its territories massively during its Caliphate, at least until the

Seventh Imam of the Twelver Shi'i tradition.
Differing opinions about the line of imams. Most of these did not adhere to the line of the 12 imams, but they all belonged to the same orientations from which the Twelvers would emerge. In more modern times, is Twelver Shi ism the continuation of one of 3 Shi i orientations, the Usuli school. The two other orientations, now extict, were the Akhbari and Shaykhi schools. The Akhbari school was rather close to the thought of Sunnism, attempting at making Twelver Shi ism law system, the Jafari, the

Peninsula in Oman, separated from the rest of Oman with a distance of about 40 km.
Mongolian and Iranian ancestry. Hazaragi is sometimes classified as a seperate language..Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle language in most countries covered by the Encyclopaedia of the Orient Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel (as one of the official languages), Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia,

Capital of Oman with 790,000 inhabitants.

Theological school inside Islam.
Origins, largely being the cause of today& ,s shift towards intolerance, rigidity and stagnation..

Valley oasis in Algeria with approximately 120,000 inhabitants.
And Shi i branches of Islam, and is often referred to only as Khariji. Whether Ibadi is the 3rd branch of Islam, or whether it is just a sub-branch of Kharijism, is a matter of definition. The original groups of Kharijis disappeared long ago, and although Ibadism took root in Kharijism, the coexistence was brief. After the break, Ibadism developed values quite different from those of Kharijism. Ibadis themselves tend to reject being called Kharijis, considering the latter orientation to be

Capital of Morocco with an estimated 1.4 million inhabitants. Industries include manufacture of textiles, processed food and building materials.
Person who is intentional in trying to lead his her life according to God will, while the mu min (believer) is one who chooses the easier path, and lets his her needs dictate action. Most Muslims use the term true Muslim for the really devout, which means that all people belonging to Islam are considered Muslim, even if they are not practicing Muslims. Research (Tore Kjeilen) in Tunisia in 1994 showed that about 40% of the population are practicing Muslims, while 50% participate only in major

Title of those learned in the Torah in Judaism. Now associated with term meaning minister in a specific synagogue.
Of Sahara and the areas north of it..Designation for the religious leader in several religions. It is not a universal term, for many other religions other terms are used. There is also no universal meaning to the term, but in brief a priest can be said to be the one performing daily rituals as well as rituals during certain holidays. A priest is generally a profession, although part-time priests can be found in all religions. The term is derived from Christianity, from Greek presbyteros, elder

Israeli politician, the country's 5th prime minister (1974-77, 1992-95), but the first to be born in the country. Includes biography. (1922-1995).
Jerusalem. 1948 Flees Palestine, after the establishment of Israel. He settles in Cairo, where he starts to study engineering at University of Cairo. 1952 He joins the Muslim Brotherhood and Union of Palestinian Students, in which he becomes president. 1956 Participates in the Suez campaign, in the Egyptian Army. 1956 Moves to Kuwait, where he works as an engineer, and establishes his own entrepreneurial company. 1957 Starts Al Fatah. Al Fatah conducts several attacks into Israel. 1967 Al Fatah

Arabic music style mixing modern, western rhythms and technology with a traditional music line.
Acha..Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the principle language in most countries covered by the Encyclopaedia of the Orient Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel (as one of the official languages), Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Arabic is used by around 250 million people, but is

Ninth month of the Hijra calendar, which is used in Islam. Often used as a synonym of sawm, the religious fasting festival that fills the entire month.

Egyptian pharoah, reigning from 1320 to 1318 and founder of the 19th dynasty.
The number of inhabitants of Ancient Egypt ranged between 1.5 and 6 million depending on the period. Most of the inhabitants lived along the Nile, but there was also a substantial population in the Nile Delta. The desert population was small in comparison. The population of Ancient Egypt had approximately the same ethnic characteristics as modern Egyptians, medium dark skin and soft, dark hair. There have been several waves of immigrations and emigrations over the 2000 years since the decline of

Egyptian pharoah, ruling from 1304 to 1237 BCE and the 3rd Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty. Includes biography.
Turkish era beginning 2nd millennium CE. Still, the use of Anatolia throughout history is not incorrect, Anatolia is also from Greek Anatole, meaning east or sunrise . There never was any early collective term for the region, lands and peoples were referred to by their own names. The first known example of the term in use is from around 400 CE, in writings by Paulus Orosius, a Christian historian. Asia Minor corresponds to modern Turkey. Full treatment Anatolia.

Egyptian pharoah, reigning from 1198 to 1166 BCE, in the 20th dynasty. Includes brief biography.
Houses were made from dried mud, with roofs made from palm tree trunks and palm leaves. Sizes of the houses varied immensely between the one-room huts of poor people and the multi-room mansions of the rich. Furniture was commonly used, and candles and lamps were employed to light the interior. Charcoal and wood was used for fuel. Clay ovens and fires were used for cooking..The upper class of Ancient Egypt consisted of the large royal family, landowners, high government officials, priests, army

Sea between Africa and the Arabian peninsula, bordering Eritrea, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. Length is 2,250 km.
Is the root of the words Islam, muslim, salam (peace), salama (safety), in addition to many others. Arabic grammar is fairly simple compared to Western languages, but the language has a richness in its used vocabulary that exceeds most languages in the Western world..Arabic writing is an alphabetic script, based upon distinct characters, adjoined to other characters, which in most cases change their looks depending on where they stand in the word. The Arabic alphabet developed from Nabatean

Located in northern Morocco. Not part of the Atlas Mountains. Includes photo.
Town in northern Morocco with 60,000 inhabitants (2005 estimate), on the Mediterranean Sea, at the foot of the Rif Mountains. By locals it is often just called Biya. It is the capital of the Taza - Al-Hoceima - Taounate region with 1.8 million inhabitants (2005 estimate) and an area of 24,155 km. The economy is based on construction, tourism, fishing and food-processing. Locals working in Europe have invested large sums in real-estate in Al-Hoceima, making construction one of the great

Capital of Saudi Arabia, with estimated 4 million inhabitants and situated in the middle of the country. Economy is connected to national administration and financial activities.
Develop Saudi Arabia. One of the few reforms of Ibn Sa ud was to declare it a duty for nomads to settle at desert wells, which made it easier for the ensuing state to control its inhabitants. Throughout his reign, he had no regular civil service or administrators. This changed shortly before his death. Being a devout Muslim and a conservative traditionalist, Ibn Sa ud had not anticipated the dramatic changes brought by the increase of petroleum revenues. At the time of his death, he was deeply

Celebration of the Jewish new year, taking place on the first and second of the month Tishri. Falls normally in October, but sometimes occurs in September.
Important to Jews than any place are to Christians, and just as important as Mecca is to Muslims. It is mainly because of the destroyed Temple that Jerusalem has become so important to Jewish identity. The only remaining part of it, the Western Wall, or Wailing Wall is it is also called, is the holiest place on earth. The second most important place is Hebron, Palestine, where Abraham was buried. The Mt. Sinai, where Moses got the covenant is also important, but not central in Jewish life. For

Israeli politician and foreign minister (1966-1974). Was involved in the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War.
Prime minister of the country, since there is a direct prime minister election..A person whose religion is by definition Judaism, even if not by conviction. The definition of a Jew is not linked to race, Jews constitute many different ethnic groups. The background of the name Jew continues to be discussed. The generally accepted theory is that it is the name for the inhabitants of Judah, the last surviving Jewish state. Judah was itself the name of one of 12 tribes. Other common names that were

Includes a map of this country and related articles.
Sediments, and heavy fertilization is used instead. In the Bible, the delta area is called Land of Goshen..

Presents the historical facts, myths, and the concept of gods.
Egypt held the tile Son of Re , as kings claimed their origin with the gods. In the myths about Re as the creator god, he first rose from the ocean of chaos, created himself first, and then 8 other gods. Indirectly, Re also created the first human beings. Re was a god who was active on a daily basis, as he traveled across the sky in his solar bark, and had to pass through the underworld during the night. During the nightly travel he had the vanquish the evil serpent Apopis. Re was joined with a

Sudanese politician and religious leader. Provides further biographical data.
Thaqafi, for Muhammad bni l-Hanafiya (see below)..Even in Shi i Islam, there are variations, but these all give the Mahdi an elevated and unique position. In Shi i Islam, the Mahdi is central to the creed, contrary to Sunni Islam. In the now extinct sect of Kaisaniya, founded around the 7th century Muhammad bni l-Hanafiya, son of Ali with another wife than Fatima. After Husein death at Karbala in 680, Muhammad was defined as Mahdi . Muhammad appears to have refused any special status, but the

Honorary title in Arabic for a person in a special postion or with a certain leadership in the society, either military or politically. It is also equivalent to the word prince.
Large enough to make them incomprehensible to one another. Hence it could be correct to refer to the different versions as separate languages named according to their areas, like Moroccan, Cairo Arabic, North Syrian Arabic etc..Arabic also has a dimension of being a sacred language, as it is the only language from which the Koran is believed to be fully understood all translations will reduce the quality of the revelations of God. Arabic is based upon a very strict grammar, in which nearly all

Former prime minister in Turkey, leader of coalition between the Welfare Party and the True Path Party.
Kurdistan, covering southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, northern Iraq, western Iran, Azerbaijan and Armenia. Kurds are also living in central cities of all these countries, as well as in European countries. Estimates on the number of Kurds vary much, due to unwillingness to accept Kurdish nationality, in countries like Turkey and Iraq. Estimates run between 15 and 25 million, where the majority is living in Turkey. Kurds speak Kurdish, a language of the western Iranian branch of the

City in central Iran, 400 km from the Persian Gulf. Includes some historical facts.
Make the shortening into shah , which also denotes an inferior title to king king , a mean act by foreigners. But it is most likely that this, as was the case with so many other imported words, was merely an act of convenience. The earliest traces of the term go back to the 1st millennium BCE, when the rulers of the Achaemenid Dynasty called themselves king king , xshyathiya xshyathiynm. The heir to the shah title, was called a shhzda. The title has also been used for hereditary governors, as

Israeli politician and prime minister, that introduced liberal economic reforms in his country.
Arabization. Hence the former Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Phoenicians, Canaanites, (most of the) Berbers etc. are still there, but they have simply changed their identities..Ethnically, Arabs are mostly dark haired with brown eyes, and medium light skin. But there are Arabs that are black, and Arabs that are quite blond. These differences are regional, and a result of the process described above. Moreover, the number of ethnically pure Arabs might constitute only a single digit percentage. More

City in Morocco with 50,000 inhabitants, and situated on the Atlantic Sea.
Constructions of the Koutoubia mosque and the Menara Gardens are started both are central landmarks in today Marrakech. 1269 The Merenids take control over Marrakech, but they make Fez into their capital. 1274 Caravan routes are moved, depriving Marrakech of central sources of income. This results in serous decline for the city economy. 1522 Saadians take control over Marrakech. The place is now a poor place largely in ruins, but with the Saadian arrival it is turned into the new capital of

River in the Middle East, rising in Turkey, passing through Syria before it ends in Iraq where together with Tigris it forms the Shattu l-Arab river way.
Introduction of specific letters well fit for the Turkish language. 1932 The Turkish Language Society is formed, with the commission to reform the language..

Range in Western Iran, with many peaks higher than 3,000 meters.
Connected by road to Shushtar, province capital Ahvaz and Khorramabad. The Trans-Iranian Railroad runs on the other side of the Dez River, 15 km from Dezful. Dezful has several historical monuments and landmarks. The main attraction is the 4th century CE Dez Bridge spanning 410 metres across the Dez River. There are also a number of mosques and tombs from between the 16th and 19th centuries..The region of Dezful has been settled for more than 5,000 years. 1963 The Dez Dam, 203 metres high, is

Married to the prophet Muhammad from 626 CE (4 H) until his death in 632 CE (10 H).
Muhammad at the age of 9, she brought along her toys, and a close relationship was tied between the two as Muhammad often joined her in her games. Among A isha main enemies following the death of Muhammad were Ali, who had been among the ones believing that A isha had been unfaithful, as accused in 628. A isha can appear as manipulative and cruel upom occasion, as when, for example, she intervened in the politics of the young Muslim state. But A isha was a part of the political structures of the

Wife of Muhammad for a period of two or eight months in 626 CE (4 H).
Passages, the material bears few traces of being legendary (which would equal false), and was first told by people who knew Muhammad as a man, and told to people of the same epoch and cultural environment. Hence, there are very good reasons for us to treat the material on Muhammad life as historical sources, and even more, as good historical sources. Sadly, many Western historians have earlier undervalued the quality of these sources, but more respect is paid by scientists of our time..Muhammad

Daughter of Muhammad and Khadija. She had two children, Ali, who died as a child, and Umama, who married Ali after Fatima died.
Purged it of all traces of non-Muslim religion. 1269 Comes under control of the Egyptian Mamluks. 1517 Passes to the Ottoman Empire. 1925 Comes under control of King Ibn Sa ud. 1979 November 21 On the first day of the 15th Islamic century, a group of 300 students from the Theological University of Medina take control over the Holy Mosque of Mecca. They keep control for two weeks, when 63 are captured alive and the mosque is recovered. All occupants are executed. 1987 July 31 Riot by Iranian

Obligatory alms, about 1/40 of a person's income in Islam, given by a Muslim to the needy inside their own society.

Sacred well in Mecca, situated a few meters to the east of the Ka'ba. Depth is thirty-five meters.
Also recorded in the Koran. Little is known from other sources. The hadith collections are a product of efforts from the scholars working from about 100 years after Muhammad death. But the material they work with, the unsystematic stories called siras, was part of a very accurate and living oral tradition among the Arabs. The compilations where built on historical criticism not very unlike what is the method in modern historical criticism. The oldest compilation of siras (not hadiths) is the one

Iranian prophet, founder of the religion Zoroastrianism.
Counts about 150,000 believers in India, 60,000 in Iran, and perhaps 50,000 in the rest of the world..The cult of Zoroastrianism is focused on the battle against the evil, and the principal symbol of this is the sacred Fire. The most important place of worship is the Temple of Fire, which a fire burns as a symbol of the holiness of Ahura Mazda. The veneration of the spirits of the dead is also important in both cult and ethics, and in the orthodox religion, believers are strongly occupied with

Shrine found in North Africa. The zawiyya is built around the residence or the grave of a holy man, waliy or woman, waliya.
Such letters like this , , . There are 3 declensions (nominative, accusative, genitive), and 2 tenses (perfect and imperfect). In general, sentences are built up as verb-subject-object constructions..Geographical region normally used for Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, the 5 countries lying north of the Sahara, and which has a population with relatively light complexion, contrary to the black peoples dominating south of Sahara. Inaccurately, the term is sometimes used for the region

Shi'i group, that diverged from the dominant Shi'i Islam in the years following the death of Zayd in 740.
Aviod social problems, while one maintains it in private. Another element is the principle of temporary marriage (Arabic muta, Persian sgheh), in which a marriage contract can be entered for a set time, for any period of time between 1 day and 99 years. The woman entering the mut a is paid a set amount of money. According to some Shi i traditions, a man performing 4 mut as is secured a place in Paradise. With the Iranian revolution, the system of mut a was reinstalled as a part of the total

President of Algeria (1994- 1999). (1932- )
Attitudes. Last, but not least, the advances of the Golden Age were actually few and came slowly. The Golden Age may therefore not be compared to anything in the modern world, the successes of the Muslim countries was more a matter of a comparison with the highly unsuccessful Europe at the time. Also, much of the economy and drift in the Muslim world came from the efforts of non-Muslim subjects, especially Christians..Islamism has been implemented as a real political alternative in modern times.

Jewish ideology that has focused on establishing a homeland. The name is derived from the hill Zion, on which the Temple of Jerusalem was situated.
Mahdi represent the true form of saviour figure, and that Messiah in Judaism and Christ in Christianity represent deviations from the original doctrines. Mahdi is a character that belongs to the last period of mankind, and his purpose is to restore the faith, and bring Islam back to its pure origins and provide for the belivers a society where they can perform their religious duties in a correct manner. The Mahdi is not mentioned in the Koran, but belongs to theological developments starting

Religion which originated in ancient Iran. Includes details of the cult and theology.
Accept Zarathustra in much the same shape that Zoroastrianism perceives him..In Zoroastrianism, angel created by the supreme god, Ahura Mazda. The yazatas had specific functions, securing the flow in the world, collecting sun light and distributing it on Earth, and especially to defend the Earth against the forces of Ahriman and his demons. The yazatas are elements that are venerable, like the sun, the moon, Haoma, as well as Mithra and the Amesha Spentas. Yazatas are central in human beings

Central town in northern Mauritania, with about 25,000 inhabitants. Economy is based on mining and related activities.
Emirates and Yemen. Arabic is used by around 250 million people, but is understood by up to four times more among Muslims around the world. Arabic is also central to other languages in the Muslim world, as a large exporter of words and expressions. Arabic writing is also used for other languages like Persian and Urdu..Arabic is a language divided into 3 separate groups Classical written Arabic, written Modern Standard Arabic, and spoken Arabic. Classical written Arabic is principally defined as

Sect inside the Zoroastrian tradition, belonging to the time of the Sassanids (226- 651 CE).
Population of North Africa and the Middle East, approx. 460,000,000..Religion with its origin in ancient Iran, which exist even in modern times. Zoroastrianism is perhaps the world& ,s oldest continuing non-pantheistic religion. The founder of Zoroastrianism, Zarathustra, preached around 600 BCE a monotheistic religious message, much of which is found in the central collection of religious texts, Avesta. Inside the History of Religion the teachings of Zarathustra has been used in order to

Republic in the Middle East with 3.5 million inhabitants.
Arabic is the only real language of Palestine, and practically all use the South Levantine dialect, which is used by a majority in Jordan and most of the Arabic-speakers in Israel. There are no important language differences between Gaza Strip and West Bank. Those speaking Levantine Bedouin inhabit the desert regions in the south of the West Bank, and along the Jordan river. Depending on political and geographical definitions, there are between 300,000 and 500,000 Jewish settlers living on

Document that served as the foundations of the Palestinian struggle for an independent state.
Route to India, which passed through the Suez Canal, upon which much of Britain& ,s economy relied. In accordance with the spirit of the time which emphasized the self-determination of small nations , supporting Zionism would be the easiest way to secure lasting British influence in the region east of the Canal, especially because the Levant had been Ottoman until 1917. Lord Rothschild, to whom the letter was addressed, was a leading British Zionist..Dear Lord Rothschild I have much pleasure in

Israeli politician who has been elected prime minister of his country, in three different periods.
October Four conservative parties, Gahal, Free Centre, State Party, and the Eretz Yisrael movement form Likud. Menachim Begin becomes its first leader. December Likud gets 30,2% of the votes for Knesset, securing 39 seats. 1977 May Likud gets 33,4% of the votes in the election for Knesset, and 43 seats, where after it forms a government together with religious parties. Menachim Begin becomes prime minister. 1981 July Likud gets 41 seats in the Knesset. 1983 August Begin resigns as leader of

Ancient capital of Persia, now located around 50 kilometers from Shiraz in Iran. Its name has Greek roots, meaning City of Persians.
There are several millions living in other countries, both in neighbouring countries to Iran, as well as large immigrant communities in America, Europe and Australia. The reason why figures of Persians in other countries are uncertain, is because other peoples are sometimes grouped together with them, according to classifications defined by Western researchers with limited direct knowledge from Iran. The distinctions between them are defined in several ways, according to ethnicity, language and

Name for the Iranian plateau, comprising today's Iran and Afghanistan. The name originally came from a small area in southern Iran, but it was used by the Greeks while referring to the whole region.
Importance of the area and the fact that it would effects too many states. If a Kurdistan was established in one country, neighbouring countries would regard this as a hostile act. In 1991, the international society could have taken the necessary steps to form a Kurdistan in northern Iraq, but actions of this kind would never have been accepted by NATO allied Turkey..

Gulf bordering Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman.
Dominated in earlier and more prosperous times of the region& ,s history, this is all planned without consideration of the interests of the Marsh Arabs..

Jewish celebration of Easter. It is also called Passover, which actually is the correct translation of the Hebrew word 'pesach'.
Should be stored, like that milk and meat should be kept separately. Food collected or slaughtered, and then prepared in accordance with Jewish law is called Kosher. Strict observance of Kosher, is considered a sign of faith by most Jews..Judaism is not headed by a single authority. The main figure of every congregation is the rabbi, who is learned in the Torah. His or her position corresponds much to the one of priests in Christianity. The rabbi is elected by the members of the congregation.

Ancient city in Jordan, west of the city of Ma'an in the southern part of the country. It is a former capital of the Nabateans.
Force today is the anger many feel concerning the differences between Arabs living in poor countries compared to those living in the rich oil countries of the Gulf. Islamism has many elements of Arab unity through its emphasis on the Arab language (from the Koran) as a response to the dominance of Western cultures and Western political systems. Islamism has been felt by non-Arabs as another way to impose Arab language and culture on them, and Islamism has had to change its form to catch on in

The term was originally used for the residence of the king, and means "great house". Gradually the term came to refer the king.
A result of wars fought against the Seleucids. On the home ground, among Ptolemy& ,s main achievements were to improve state control over Egyptian agriculture. Culture prospered under Ptolemy, with rich achievements centered around the court in Alexandria. The library of Alexandria prospered under him, too. He has succeeded by his son, Ptolemy 3..King of Ancient Egypt (1129- 1126 BCE), the 7th ruler of the 20th Dynasty. His name was not Ramses. This was a name title he took when assuming power.

Palestine Liberation Organization founded in Jerusalem, 1964.
Large and in excellent condition, complete with many of its original open-air markets and city gates. Tunis has two universities, of which the oldest, the University of Tunis was founded in 1960..2 millennium BCE Founded by the Libyans, and possibly named Tunes. 9th century Surrendered to the coast to the Phoenicians of Tyre, who then founded Carthage. 146 Destroyed together with Carthage by the Romans, during the 3rd Punic War. Tunis would flourish during the Roman reign. 7th century Comes

Army of Western Sahara that prevented the invasion of the Moroccan and the Mauritanian.

City in Egypt, situated on the Mediterranean Sea, and at the northern end of the Suez Canal.
Israeli control. Later that evening, Israeli fights on the Egyptian front cease. June 10 Syria surrenders, after seeing Golan Heights come under Israeli control. 1973 October The Yom Kippur comes as a reaction to the territorial losses and the humiliation of the Six-Day War. Israeli withdrawal from Sinai starts, and goes on for the next 3 years..Semitic language used by Arabs caused by some historical tie, as the majority of Arabs are Arabs by language and not by blood. Arabic is used as the

Egyptian Pharaoh that reigned from 663 to 610 BCE, and was founder of the 26th dynasty.
Faced new challenges along its borders. In the 6th century, Egypt was attacked by Babylonia. In 525, Egypt was no longer able to hold back Asian invasions, and fell to the Persians, at the Battle at Pelusium. The Egyptian king, Psametik 3, was brought to Susa by the Persian king, , in chains. Information about this dynasty is considered among the most accurate of ancient Egyptian history..Avenue of Sphinxes, built by the command of Nectanebo 1. Luxor, Egypt..Period of Ancient Egypt, 664-332 BCE,

Pharaonic reign in ancient Egypt that lasted for a period of 297 years, from 323 BC until 30 BC, until it was ended by Roman annexation.
Bequeathed to his son Ptolemy Apion, while Egypt was left to his wife Cleopatra 3..

King of Egypt from 323 until 285 BCE and father of the Ptolemaic dynasty. His most important achievements were to declare Alexandria as the capital of his rule, and the foundation of the Library of Al
From about 3100 BCE until 30 BCE, althogether more than 3,000 years. While the kingdoms at times were ruled by kings of foreign origin, the culture and religion of Ancient Egypt represent mainly continuations and developments from the same beginnings. The name used by the Egyptians themselves was Kemet, Dark Land, referring to the dark and fertile soil along the Nile river. As with modern Egypt, the Nile was the single source of water for Ancient Egypt, allowing abundant harvests 3 times a year.

King of Egypt and second in the Ptolemaic dynasty. 309- 246 BCE.
Ancient Egypt was almost continuously ruled by kings, even if there were several changes in dynasties. The legitimacy of the king was substantiated through myths in which the institution of kingship was established by the gods The king was defined as the son of Osiris, and often represented as Horus in the shape of a human being. The position of the king was passed on, generally to the oldest son of the king& ,s chief wife. In some cases, when the chief wife could not bear a son, the oldest

King of Egypt and third in the dinasty. During his reign the control over Cyrenaica was strengthened, and also invaded Syria.
Houses, valuables and food had to be safely stored from the rising water. At the same time, the silt of the flood fertilized the fields, providing for rich crops and the wealth of the country. Today the level of water in the Nile is controlled by the Aswan High Dam. People lived in the desert in ancient times too, principally along the crescent of the Western oases (like Dakhla and Kharga) and Siwa. These regions had a population ethically different from that of the Nile, being close to Libyans.

King of Egypt who was characterized by military defeats in Syria, as well as upheavals in Egypt.
To them..The number of inhabitants of Ancient Egypt ranged between 1.5 and 6 million depending on the period. Most of the inhabitants lived along the Nile, but there was also a substantial population in the Nile Delta. The desert population was small in comparison. The population of Ancient Egypt had approximately the same ethnic characteristics as modern Egyptians, medium dark skin and soft, dark hair. There have been several waves of immigrations and emigrations over the 2000 years since the

King of Egypt, fifth in the Dinasty. 210-181 BCE.
Education was not common in Ancient Egypt, only few attended schools. Most people& ,s lives were so basic that what little knowledge was necessary could be passed on from the older to the younger in the local communities. Even among traders belonging to the middle class, it was customary for fathers to teach their sons. The main subjects in the schools were reading and writing, as well as political skills that were central in the administration. Other important subjects were geography and

King of Egypt that endured attacks from the country neighbors. He lived at the start of the internal conflicts that broke the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Every country of northern Africa, the Middle East and many European countries as well. Many settled, and some left their trace on the Egyptian population from sexual relations with locals. Egypt was also attractive to invading armies, soldiers of which often settled in the conquered land and married Egyptian women. Slaves represented the third type of immigration. Slaves came from foreign lands, either as trading merchandise or as war prisoners. As both male and female slaves could marry and

King of Egypt that is most known for his attempt to remove his sister Cleopatra from her position.
Bit reflected the individual who was the king. The 1st Dynasty king, Den, of the 30th century was the first to use nesw-bit. The Pharaoh was considered as the son of the god Osiris, as Horus, and therefore himself a divine being. This gave strength to the institution as he was the protector of maat, the universal ethical principle. This institution changed over time. During the period of the New Kingdom, there was a clear distinction between divine kingship, and the Pharaoh himself. Through long

Collective name on the wars between the Punic city state of Carthage and Rome. The first war started at 264 BCE, and the last one ended at 146.
Capital of Tunisia with 1.2 million inhabitants (2005 estimate), situated in the northeast of the country, at the end of Lake of Tunis, in from the Gulf of Tunis, which is a part of the Mediterranean Sea. Tunis is situated close to the sea only with Lake Tunis between it and Mediterranean Sea. Lake Tunis serves to some extent as a harbour, but many other port activities are served in some of the satellite cities out on the coast, like Goulette. Tunis is the commercial and economic centre for

Festival commemorating the salvation of the Jews from the threat of destruction by the Persian king. This story is recorded in the Book of Esther.
And Abraham grand son Jacob. The covenant was extended as Moses was given the Ten Commandments and other laws. From this, the Jews learn how they should lead their lives. The covenant involves that the Jews are a chosen people, giving them certain rights as well as responsibilities..Judaism is a religion of waiting , waiting for Messiah, the god sent ruler who will liberate the Jews and bring back justice and security to the earth. The ideas of the Messiah have gone through changes, and while

Architectural structure that served as tombs. The first one was erected around 2700 BC.
Possible. It easy, but not that rewarding, to come as far as the core of this..This is standing right in front of the pyramid of Khufu, followed by that of Khafre, with the far smaller of Menkaure behind. You may spot a fourth pyramid somehow, one of the queens of Menkaure..So, you though the Pyramids were out in the desert, far away from settlements. When driving up to the pyramidal area you realize. Above the roofs the two largest pyramids rise up. From some angles you feel like they re coming

Politician in Syria from early 1966 to late 1970. Includes brief biography.
Troops were less than 100 km from Cairo and less than 50 km from Damascus and Amman). The war was the most dramatic of all wars fought between Israel and the Arab nations, resulting in a depression in the Arab world lasting many years, changing the mentalities and political orientations among the people, as well as resulting in increased tensions between the Arab countries and the Western world. While the actual material and human losses were dramatic enough, Arab weakness in this war compared

City in Morocco with 150,000 inhabitants. Economic base centers around tourism, sardine fishing and agriculture. Includes history.
Race, Jews constitute many different ethnic groups. The background of the name Jew continues to be discussed. The generally accepted theory is that it is the name for the inhabitants of Judah, the last surviving Jewish state. Judah was itself the name of one of 12 tribes. Other common names that were displaced by jew are Hebrews and Israelites. A person who is Jewish by birth is consider such if his mother is Jewish. This is the case with Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, while Reform Judaism

Sixth Imam in the Twelver and Isma'ili traditions of Shi'i Islam. Influential teacher, theologian and jurist. Taught Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas who were instrumental in the development of Sunni Is
May be a spokesman for the members of the congregation and an adviser in all questions that relate somehow to religion..There are several different nuances in views of the imam among the Shi is, but a common assumption is that he is the leader of all Muslims, and, by extension, a leader in the world. In Twelver Shi i Islam, imams existed only through the first centuries of Muslim history, possibly into the 10th century. There are differences about what makes an imam an imam, and therefore who

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